The gastrointestinal tract may be directly infected by SARS-CoV-2 or secondarily affected by viremia and the release of inflammatory mediators that cause viral entry from the respiratory epithelium. Impaired intestinal barrier function in SARS-CoV-2 infection is a key factor leading to excessive microbial and endotoxin translocation, which triggers a strong systemic immune response and leads to the development of viral sepsis syndrome with severe sequelae.
Multiple components of the gut immune system are affected, resulting in a diminished or dysfunctional gut immunological barrier. Antiviral peptides, inflammatory mediators, immune cell chemotaxis, and secretory immunoglobulins are important parameters that are negatively affected in SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Mucosal CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, Th17 cells, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and macrophages are activated, and the number of regulatory T cells decreases, promoting an overactivated immune response with increased expression of type I and III interferons and other proinflammatory cytokines.
The changes in the immunologic barrier could be promoted in part by a dysbiotic gut microbiota, through commensal-derived signals and metabolites. On the other hand, the proinflammatory intestinal environment could further compromise the integrity of the intestinal epithelium by promoting enterocyte apoptosis and disruption of tight junctions.
The COVID-19 Research findings were published in the peer reviewed journal:
Frontiers In Immunogy.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1129190/full
SARS-CoV-2-mediated gut microbiome and immunological changes
The constant interaction of immune cells with the gut microbiome maintains the balance between tolerance to beneficial bacteria and eradication of pathogenic species (80). A complex, dynamic, and bilateral interaction between the gut microbiome and COVID-19 has been described (81).
The function of the amino acid transporter B0AT1, which mediates intestinal uptake of tryptophan, is dependent on the ACE2 pathway (82). Tryptophan modulates the production of AMPs via the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway (83). Therefore, the deficiency of tryptophan caused by ACE-2 blockade may decrease the production of AMPs and disrupt the intraluminal microbial species. Commensal bacteria also play a critical role in mucosal homeostasis by modulating the expression of ACE2 in the gut (84).
A recent meta-analysis detailed the changes in the gut microbiota during SARS-CoV-2 infection (11). At the phylum level, dysbiosis is characterized by a reduction in the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes. In particular, COVID-19 is associated with fewer butyrate-producing bacterial species, including Faecalibacterium and Roseburia (11, 15, 86).
The genus Roseburia is closely associated with colon motility and mucosal tissue integrity and has a crucial anti-inflammatory effect by regulating IL-10 synthesis (87). Several other beneficial genera, including Eubacterium, Alistipes, and Bifidobacterium, are also reduced in COVID-19 patients (11). Bifidobacterium strains mediate robust antimicrobial and antiviral activity, which is balanced by promotion of Treg-mediated responses and induction of tolerogenic DC phenotypes (88).
Alterations in the gut microbiome have also been closely associated with clinical severity of COVID-19 in several studies, suggesting a prognostic role in such patients (12–24). Bacterial genera with significant prognostic value included Eubacterium, Ruminococcus, Faecalibacterium, Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Clostridium, Roseburia, and Bifidobacterium (12–24). An increase in the dominant genus Enterococcus and a decrease in the families Ruminococcaceae and Lachnospiraceae have been reported in severe COVID-19 cases admitted to the intensive care unit (21).
The changes in the gut microbiota in patients with COVID-19 should be considered as a dynamic process (81). Emerging evidence suggests that the regulatory functions of the gut microbiota effectively support recovery from SARS-CoV-2 infection. The main features of intestinal immune barrier disruption during SARS-CoV-2 infection are shown in Figure 1.
