Abstract – The UNRWA Controversy: Neutrality, Humanitarian Mandate, and State Obligations in the Occupied Palestinian Territory as of December 2025

The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) operates as the primary provider of humanitarian assistance, education, and health services to over 5.9 million registered Palestine refugees across Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. Established by General Assembly resolution 302 (IV) on 8 December 1949, UNRWA delivers these services pending a just resolution to the refugee question. As of December 2025, UNRWA faces unprecedented challenges stemming from Israeli legislation enacted in October 2024 and implemented from January 2025, which prohibits the agency’s operations within territories under Israeli control, including occupied East Jerusalem, and severs all official contact with Israeli authorities. This monograph examines the origins, legal foundations, and implications of allegations against UNRWA neutrality, particularly claims of staff involvement with Hamas, alongside the agency’s responses, independent reviews, and evolving international positions through General Assembly actions and International Court of Justice (ICJ) proceedings.

The analysis begins with the mandate and operational framework of UNRWA. The agency employs approximately 30,000 staff, predominantly local Palestinians, to manage 706 schools educating over 500,000 students, 144 health centres, and extensive relief programmes. In Gaza, where UNRWA serves nearly 2 million people amid ongoing conflict, it coordinates the bulk of humanitarian aid distribution. Israeli allegations intensified in January 2024, when authorities claimed 12 UNRWA staff participated in the 7 October 2023 Hamas-led attacks. UNRWA immediately terminated the contracts of the implicated individuals and referred the matter to the United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS). By August 2024, OIOS investigations concluded that sufficient evidence existed to confirm possible involvement by 9 staff members, leading to their dismissal. No publicly accessible primary document from OIOS details the evidence, but the agency acted decisively on the findings available at the time.

An independent review led by former French Foreign Minister Catherine Colonna, released in April 2024, assessed UNRWA‘s neutrality mechanisms. The review found that UNRWA maintains a more robust framework for neutrality than comparable United Nations entities or non-governmental organizations, including dedicated policies, a Humanitarian Principles Team, and procedures for investigating breaches. Between 2022 and 2024, UNRWA reviewed all external allegations and initiated investigations where prima facie evidence existed. The Colonna report noted persistent issues, such as occasional staff public statements violating neutrality and challenges with host country textbooks in some schools, but emphasized that these stem from the agency’s complex operating environment rather than systemic failure. Israel provided lists of alleged staff affiliations in March and April 2024, but the review concluded that no supporting evidence substantiated broader claims of significant infiltration by Hamas or other groups.

In October 2024, the Israeli Knesset passed legislation banning UNRWA activities in Israel proper and occupied East Jerusalem, prohibiting contact with Israeli officials, and effectively restricting operations in Gaza and the West Bank. The laws entered into force on 30 January 2025, prompting UNRWA to report disruptions in visa issuance for international staff and coordination of aid convoys. The United Nations Secretary-General condemned the measures as violations of Israel’s obligations under the Charter and international law.

The General Assembly responded decisively. On 12 December 2024, it adopted resolution A/ES-10/L.32, affirming full support for UNRWA and deploring the Israeli legislation that threatens the agency’s mandate. The resolution underscored UNRWA as the backbone of humanitarian response in Gaza and called for unimpeded operations. A companion resolution, A/ES-10/L.33, demanded an immediate ceasefire and unrestricted aid access, rejecting actions undermining UNRWA. Earlier, on 19 December 2024, the Assembly adopted resolution A/79/232, requesting an ICJ advisory opinion on Israel’s obligations regarding United Nations activities in the Occupied Palestinian Territory.

The ICJ delivered its advisory opinion on 22 October 2025, rejecting Israeli claims of UNRWA infiltration by Hamas as unsubstantiated and affirming the agency’s neutrality. The Court recalled the United Nations’ permanent responsibility toward the Palestine question and described UNRWA as indispensable for education, health, and social services. It ruled that Israel’s restrictions, including the October 2024 laws, violate obligations to facilitate United Nations operations and constitute unlawful exercise of sovereignty in occupied territory.

Funding dynamics shifted markedly. Major donors suspended contributions in early 2024 following initial allegations, but most resumed by mid-2024 after the Colonna report and limited OIOS confirmations. The United States maintained its suspension until at least March 2025 under domestic legislation. Sweden announced cessation of funding for 2025, citing concerns, while others increased pledges to offset gaps. UNRWA‘s 2024-2025 programme budget faced shortfalls, exacerbated by emergency appeals for Gaza reconstruction.

Key findings reveal a pattern: allegations of staff misconduct, while leading to dismissals in isolated cases, lack evidence for systemic compromise. Independent reviews and ICJ rulings substantiate UNRWA‘s neutrality mechanisms as effective given operational constraints. Israeli actions, including the ban, contravene international humanitarian law by obstructing aid delivery, as affirmed by General Assembly resolutions and the ICJ opinion.

Implications extend beyond humanitarian access. Dismantling UNRWA risks collapsing services for millions, perpetuating instability, and undermining the United Nations’ role in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. The General Assembly’s overwhelming support—evident in votes exceeding 150 in favour on UNRWA-related texts—signals broad international consensus on the agency’s indispensability. As of December 2025, no alternative mechanism matches UNRWA‘s scale or embedded presence. States must uphold obligations to facilitate United Nations activities, ensure sustained funding, and pursue political resolutions addressing root causes of refugee status.

This analysis draws exclusively from verified United Nations documents, ICJ opinions, and General Assembly records current to December 2025. It highlights causal chains: unsubstantiated allegations triggered funding pauses and legislative bans, which in turn prompted robust multilateral reaffirmation of UNRWA‘s mandate through legal and diplomatic channels.

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Table of Contents

Core Concepts in Review: What We Know and Why It Matters

• Historical Mandate and Operational Framework of UNRWA
• Allegations of Neutrality Breaches and Agency Responses (2023–2024)
• Independent Reviews and Investigations into Neutrality Mechanisms
• Israeli Legislation and Implementation of the UNRWA Ban (2024–2025)
• International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion and General Assembly Actions
• Funding Dynamics, Donor Positions, and Humanitarian Implications as of December 2025

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Core Concepts in Review: What We Know and Why It Matters

The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) stands as one of the most enduring and distinctive institutions in the United Nations system. Created by the General Assembly in 1949, it was tasked with providing education, health care, and social services to Palestinian refugees displaced during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war—and uniquely, to their descendants. This generational mandate has grown the registered refugee population to nearly 6 million people spread across Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank, and Gaza. Unlike any other refugee agency, UNRWA does not resettle refugees or seek permanent integration in host countries; it maintains their status pending a political solution. This structure has kept the agency at the center of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict for three-quarters of a century.

At its core, UNRWA functions as a quasi-governmental service provider. It runs hundreds of schools and clinics, employs tens of thousands of local staff (almost all Palestinian refugees themselves), and in Gaza has long served as the backbone of public administration in everything from garbage collection to primary health care. The agency’s direct-delivery model—rather than simply coordinating aid through partners—gives it unparalleled reach and efficiency in the areas where it operates, but it also makes it deeply embedded in the communities it serves, for better and for worse.

The crisis that erupted in 2024 and deepened through 2025 centered on allegations that UNRWA had lost its neutrality. Israel claimed that a number of the agency’s Gaza-based staff participated in the 7 October 2023 Hamas-led attacks, and that a broader portion of its workforce maintained ties to militant groups. These accusations were serious enough that several major donors, including the United States, temporarily suspended funding, threatening the agency’s ability to pay salaries and keep facilities open.

Independent investigations, however, painted a more nuanced picture. The United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services examined the specific cases of alleged participation in the October attacks and found sufficient grounds in nine instances to warrant contract termination, but insufficient evidence in the others. A separate review led by former French foreign minister Catherine Colonna concluded that UNRWA actually maintains more robust neutrality mechanisms than many comparable humanitarian organizations, though it identified areas for improvement. Crucially, no evidence emerged of systemic infiltration or institutional bias.

Israel nonetheless moved forward with legislation in late 2024 that banned UNRWA from operating on territory under its control—including occupied East Jerusalem—and prohibited Israeli authorities from any contact with the agency. When the laws took effect in January 2025, they disrupted visa processing for international staff, coordination of aid convoys into Gaza, and administrative functions in the West Bank. The United Nations condemned these measures as a violation of Israel’s obligations as an occupying power and of the Charter’s requirement to cooperate with UN bodies.

The international community responded decisively. The International Court of Justice, in an advisory opinion requested by the General Assembly, rejected Israel’s claims of widespread UNRWA infiltration as unsubstantiated and affirmed the agency’s neutrality. The Court ruled that Israel must facilitate rather than obstruct UN operations in the occupied territory. The General Assembly followed with resolutions that overwhelmingly supported UNRWA and demanded compliance with the Court’s findings.

Funding tells a story of resilience amid pressure. While some donors paused or reduced contributions in response to the allegations, most resumed after the independent reviews. Others increased their pledges to offset gaps. The agency ended 2024 with one of its highest funding years on record, driven largely by the humanitarian emergency in Gaza. Yet structural deficits remain, and the loss of even a few major contributors creates ongoing vulnerability.

The humanitarian stakes could hardly be higher. In Gaza, where the population depends on UNRWA for basic services more than anywhere else, any sustained disruption risks collapse of education, health care, and food distribution systems. The agency’s local staff have kept operations running under extraordinarily difficult conditions, but without official coordination channels, risks to personnel and effectiveness have risen sharply.

What emerges from this sequence of events is a clear pattern. Allegations of neutrality breaches, while leading to accountability in isolated cases, did not substantiate claims of institutional compromise. Israeli measures to restrict or replace UNRWA encountered overwhelming international opposition, including legal rulings that clarified state obligations toward UN agencies. Donors largely maintained support once independent assessments were complete.

The broader significance lies in precedent. No member state had previously legislated against a UN agency created by the General Assembly. The episode tested the ability of domestic politics to override multilateral commitments and the resilience of the UN system when one powerful member seeks to dismantle a mandated program. The fact that UNRWA continued operating—albeit under strain—demonstrates both the strength of its embedded local structure and the limits of unilateral action against a broadly supported international institution.

For policymakers, the core lesson is straightforward: UNRWA remains indispensable in the absence of a political resolution to the refugee question. Attempts to sideline or replace it have not produced viable alternatives at scale, and international law, diplomatic consensus, and humanitarian reality all point in the same direction. The agency’s mandate may be unique, but the principles at stake—state cooperation with the United Nations, protection of humanitarian space, and the imperative of impartial aid delivery—are universal.

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Historical Mandate and Operational Framework of UNRWA

The United Nations General Assembly established the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) through resolution 302 (IV) adopted on 8 December 1949. This resolution directed UNRWA to carry out direct relief and works programmes in collaboration with local governments to prevent conditions of starvation and distress among Palestine refugees and to further conditions of peace and stability. The agency commenced operations on 1 May 1950, initially responding to the needs of approximately 750,000 Palestine refugees displaced as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict. The General Assembly defined Palestine refugees as persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period from 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948 and who lost both home and means of livelihood due to the conflict. Descendants of Palestine refugee males, including legally adopted children, qualify for registration, which explains the growth in registered numbers over time.

UNRWA operates in five fields: Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. The agency provides services to registered Palestine refugees living in these areas as well as to other persons displaced by the 1967 and subsequent hostilities when required on an emergency basis. Nearly one-third of registered Palestine refugees—more than 1.5 million individuals—reside in 58 recognized refugee camps, where socioeconomic conditions remain poor due to high population density, cramped living conditions, and inadequate infrastructure. The remaining registered refugees live in and around cities and towns, often near camps, with access to the same services.

As of the latest available figures, some 5.9 million Palestine refugees are eligible for UNRWA services. This population growth stems directly from the inclusion of descendants in the registration criteria, combined with natural demographic increases in host communities. The agency’s mandate derives exclusively from the General Assembly, which renews it periodically—most recently extended through resolutions affirming its essential role pending a just and lasting solution to the plight of Palestine refugees. The mandate encompasses humanitarian assistance, human development, and protection activities, including basic education, primary health care, relief and social services, infrastructure and camp improvement, microfinance, and emergency response in armed conflict situations.

UNRWA employs over 30,000 staff members, the vast majority of whom are Palestine refugees themselves, ensuring deep local knowledge and direct community integration in service delivery. This staffing model originated from the agency’s early emphasis on works programmes to promote self-support among refugees, transitioning over time to sustained provision of quasi-governmental services in the absence of a political resolution. The agency maintains headquarters split between Gaza and Amman, with field offices in each operational area responsible for strategic planning, budget implementation, and adaptation to emerging needs.

Education forms the largest programme, historically accounting for the majority of resources. UNRWA runs one of the largest non-governmental school systems in the Middle East, operating hundreds of schools that provide basic education aligned with host country curricula while adhering to United Nations values. Health services include comprehensive primary health care delivered through a network of facilities offering outpatient consultations, maternal and child health, disease prevention, and management of non-communicable diseases. Relief and social services target the most vulnerable through cash assistance, food aid, and social safety nets, while infrastructure projects focus on camp improvement to address environmental health risks.

The operational framework emphasizes direct service provision rather than coordination alone, distinguishing UNRWA from other United Nations entities. Because the General Assembly created the agency specifically for Palestine refugees without a fixed termination date tied to repatriation or resettlement, operations continue indefinitely until the refugee question resolves politically. This structure arose from the failure of earlier mechanisms to address both humanitarian and political dimensions of the displacement, leading the General Assembly to assign UNRWA responsibility for interim measures promoting self-reliance and stability.

In Jordan, the largest field, UNRWA serves the highest number of registered refugees, many integrated into society yet reliant on agency services for education and health. Lebanon hosts refugees facing severe legal restrictions on employment and property ownership, exacerbating vulnerability. In the Syrian Arab Republic, conflict has displaced significant portions of the refugee population multiple times. The West Bank and Gaza Strip present unique challenges under occupation, where UNRWA coordinates with local authorities while navigating access restrictions.

The mandate evolved incrementally through General Assembly resolutions responding to crises. Following the 1967 hostilities, resolutions expanded assistance to persons displaced anew, including non-refugees in need. Subsequent conflicts, such as in Lebanon in 1982, prompted further extensions for emergency humanitarian aid. Protection activities grew to include monitoring, reporting, and advocacy on issues affecting refugee rights, integrated into service delivery without a separate protection mandate comparable to other agencies.

Funding relies almost entirely on voluntary contributions from Member States, with the programme budget covering recurrent costs for core services. This financial model traces back to the founding resolution’s call for cooperation with governments and organizations, resulting in a structure vulnerable to donor fluctuations yet sustained by broad international support. The General Assembly’s repeated affirmations of UNRWA as indispensable reflect recognition that no alternative entity matches its scale, embedded presence, or direct delivery capacity in the five fields.

Operational independence stems from direct reporting to the General Assembly, bypassing the Security Council or other bodies. This arrangement ensures continuity amid political stalemates, allowing UNRWA to adapt programmes to demographic transitions, such as rising non-communicable disease burdens from longer life expectancies. The agency’s role in human development—educating generations and providing health care—builds refugee capacity for eventual durable solutions, whether return, resettlement, or integration.

In camps, UNRWA administers installations but holds no ownership of land, leased or provided by host governments. This limits large-scale development, focusing efforts on service provision and advocacy for improved conditions. Outside camps, refugees access facilities alongside host communities, promoting inclusion where possible. The framework prioritizes impartiality and neutrality, with mechanisms to address breaches ensuring humanitarian principles guide all activities.

Because the 1948 displacement occurred without comprehensive international protection regimes for refugees as exist today, UNRWA filled a gap specific to Palestine refugees excluded from broader conventions at the time. Subsequent General Assembly actions reinforced this specialized role, extending services to address protracted displacement across generations. The operational model thus combines immediate relief with long-term development, preventing destitution while fostering skills and health for future contributions.

Staff recruitment prioritizes qualified Palestine refugees, creating employment opportunities that reduce dependency and embed accountability within communities served. International staff fill senior positions to maintain oversight and alignment with United Nations standards. This hybrid structure enables efficient, culturally attuned delivery at scale unmatched by non-governmental partners.

The mandate’s humanitarian and development focus excludes political negotiations, reserving durable solutions for intergovernmental processes. UNRWA contributes interim measures, such as registration preserving refugee status claims and services mitigating hardship. Renewals every three years underscore ongoing international responsibility, with overwhelming General Assembly support signaling consensus on the agency’s necessity absent resolution.

In practice, UNRWA delivers education to hundreds of thousands annually, health consultations to millions, and social support to the poorest. These outputs derive from the founding directive to promote peace through stability, evolving into a comprehensive system sustaining human dignity amid unresolved conflict. The framework’s resilience lies in adaptability—expanding during emergencies, contracting resources when constrained—always anchored in the original resolution’s dual relief and works approach.

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Allegations of Neutrality Breaches and Agency Responses (2023–2024)

Israeli authorities escalated public criticism of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) throughout late 2023, culminating in formal allegations transmitted to the agency in January 2024 that 12 UNRWA staff members in the Gaza Strip participated in the Hamas-led armed attacks on southern Israel on 7 October 2023. These allegations originated from information provided by Israeli officials, prompting immediate administrative action by UNRWA leadership. Commissioner-General Philippe Lazzarini terminated the contracts of the implicated individuals on 26 January 2024 to protect the agency’s ability to deliver humanitarian assistance amid the escalating crisis in Gaza. This decision aligned with established staff regulations, enabling swift response without awaiting full investigative outcomes.

Additional allegations surfaced in March and April 2024, expanding the scope to 19 area staff members in total. UNRWA incorporated these into the ongoing probe, maintaining contract terminations for all concerned personnel pending verification. The agency condemned the 7 October attacks in the strongest terms from the outset, reiterating calls for the unconditional release of all hostages. Because the allegations involved potential criminal conduct, the United Nations Secretary-General tasked the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) with an independent investigation, separate from UNRWA‘s internal processes.

OIOS completed its review by August 2024, examining evidence through visits to Israel for discussions with authorities, reviews of UNRWA records in Amman, analysis of information and communications technology data, and consultation of public sources. Investigators faced limitations in independently authenticating much of the material supplied by Israeli officials, as key elements remained under Israeli custody. Findings addressed each of the 19 cases individually. In one instance, no evidence supported the allegation, allowing the staff member to resume duties. Nine cases lacked sufficient evidence to substantiate involvement, leading to closure of those investigations.

For the remaining 9 cases, available information—if authenticated and corroborated—indicated possible participation in the 7 October attacks. UNRWA terminated the contracts of these individuals in the interest of the agency, ensuring they could no longer perform duties. Two of the 19 staff members were confirmed deceased, though circumstances of their deaths remained unverified by UNRWA. The probe underscored the agency’s zero-tolerance policy for breaches of United Nations principles, including neutrality and prohibitions on political activities.

Broader Israeli claims emerged concurrently, asserting that a significant proportion of UNRWA‘s 13,000 Gaza-based staff maintained ties to Hamas or Palestinian Islamic Jihad, with estimates suggesting up to 10 % affiliation. A March 2024 list shared publicly by Israeli sources purported to identify such connections based on staff identifiers. UNRWA reviewed these assertions systematically. Annual staff lists, including names, employee numbers, and functions, have been provided to host authorities—including Israel for operations in Gaza and the West Bank—since 2011, alongside sharing with other Member States upon request. No prior indications of concerns emerged from these transmissions until the 2024 allegations.

UNRWA screens all staff biannually against the United Nations Security Council Consolidated Sanctions List, with no matches documented across approximately 8 million records processed. Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad do not appear on this list, limiting direct vetting applicability. The agency requested supporting evidence from Israeli authorities for the broader affiliation claims to enable targeted investigations, but no such documentation was forthcoming by mid-2024.

Separate accusations targeted UNRWA educational materials and facilities, alleging promotion of antisemitism or incitement through host-country textbooks and misuse of installations for military purposes. UNRWA employs curricula approved by host governments, enriching them with human rights and tolerance modules aligned with United Nations values. Problematic content identified in reviews prompts production of supplementary materials and teacher guidance to mitigate biases. Quarterly neutrality assessments covered 99 % of facilities in 2023, with violations—such as discovery of munitions—prompting condemnation, sealing of sites, and reporting to relevant parties.

Social media activity by staff drew scrutiny, including unauthorized Telegram groups where posts allegedly endorsed violence. UNRWA clarified that such platforms were neither established nor managed by the agency, investigating verified staff involvement individually. Between January 2022 and February 2024, the Investigations Division processed 151 neutrality-breach allegations, predominantly related to online posts. Disciplinary measures ranged from fines and suspensions to terminations, reflecting enforcement of the updated Code of Ethics.

Funding suspensions followed rapidly after the initial January allegations. 16 donors paused contributions, reducing expected 2024 inflows by approximately $438 million, or 51.5 % of projected resources. This shortfall threatened operational continuity, particularly in Gaza where UNRWA coordinated the primary humanitarian response. By May 2024, 14 donors reversed pauses upon preliminary reviews, with the United Kingdom resuming on 19 July 2024. Remaining suspensions constrained budgeting, though increased pledges from others partially offset losses.

UNRWA responded transparently, publishing detailed rebuttals to claims in February 2024. The agency highlighted that, since 2022, only 66 investigations addressed neutrality breaches across 30,000 staff region-wide, equating to 0.22 % and underscoring adherence by the vast majority. Swift terminations and cooperation with OIOS demonstrated commitment to accountability. Engagement with de facto authorities in Gaza remained operational only, focused on aid delivery and deconfliction, without political endorsement.

An independent review, commissioned separately and led by former French Foreign Minister Catherine Colonna in collaboration with three Nordic research institutes, assessed UNRWA‘s neutrality frameworks. Released on 20 April 2024, the report concluded that UNRWA maintains a more developed approach to neutrality than other comparable United Nations or non-governmental entities. Mechanisms include dedicated teams for humanitarian principles, regular training, and robust investigation protocols established since 2017.

The review examined Israeli lists alleging widespread affiliations but found no supporting evidence provided to substantiate claims beyond the initial cases under OIOS scrutiny. It noted persistent challenges in high-risk environments, such as occasional misuse of facilities by armed groups, but affirmed UNRWA‘s proactive reporting and mitigation efforts. Recommendations targeted enhancements in donor communication, staff screening, and oversight capacity to address capacity gaps amid rising allegations.

Because isolated breaches occurred amid protracted conflict, UNRWA implemented zero-tolerance enforcement through terminations and referrals where warranted. The limited scope of confirmed cases—9 potential involvements out of 13,000 Gaza staff—refuted assertions of systemic infiltration. Agency actions preserved operational integrity, enabling continued delivery of essential services to millions despite funding volatility and access restrictions.

The Colonna-led review identified eight critical areas for improvement, including centralized investigations and enhanced vetting, prompting UNRWA to initiate a high-level action plan. By late 2024, several recommendations advanced toward implementation, reinforcing mechanisms without altering core direct-delivery model. Israeli authorities continued to withhold evidentiary support for expansive claims, constraining further targeted responses.

Donor resumptions reflected confidence in these processes, stabilizing finances sufficiently to avert immediate collapse. UNRWA prioritized transparency, sharing updates on investigations and neutrality compliance. The episode exposed vulnerabilities in protracted operations under occupation, where local staffing ensures efficiency but invites politicized scrutiny.

Allegations amplified pre-existing tensions, yet verified outcomes demonstrated effective internal controls. UNRWA upheld impartiality mandates, condemning violations irrespective of source. Responses balanced accountability with mandate fulfillment, preventing broader disruptions to humanitarian access in Gaza.

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Independent Reviews and Investigations into Neutrality Mechanisms

The United Nations Secretary-General appointed an independent review group on 5 February 2024 to assess whether the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) executes all practicable measures to ensure neutrality and responds effectively to allegations of serious breaches. Former French Foreign Minister Catherine Colonna led the group, collaborating with the Raoul Wallenberg Institute in Sweden, the Chr. Michelsen Institute in Norway, and the Danish Institute for Human Rights. The review commenced operations on 13 February 2024, focusing on existing mechanisms, their implementation in practice, and recommendations for improvement, accounting for the agency’s challenging operational context, particularly in Gaza.

The group delivered its final report on 20 April 2024. Independent review of mechanisms and procedures to ensure adherence by UNRWA to the humanitarian principle of neutrality – Independent Review Group on UNRWA – April 2024 The report identified that UNRWA maintains a more elaborate approach to neutrality than other similar United Nations entities or non-governmental organizations. Mechanisms include dedicated policies on humanitarian principles, a framework for neutrality established in 2017 with updates through 2023, regular training programmes, and investigation procedures managed by the Department of Internal Oversight and Investigations.

Israeli authorities presented lists in March and April 2024 alleging that a significant number of UNRWA employees belonged to terrorist organizations. The review examined these lists but determined that no evidence supported the claims, as Israeli officials provided no substantiating documentation despite requests. This absence of proof originated from the failure to share underlying intelligence or data, limiting the review’s ability to verify broader affiliation assertions beyond the specific cases under separate investigation.

The report detailed persistent neutrality challenges arising from the agency’s operating environment. Staff occasionally posted public statements violating impartiality requirements on social media, though such instances remained limited relative to the workforce size. Host-country textbooks used in UNRWA schools sometimes contained problematic content, prompting the agency to develop supplementary materials promoting tolerance and human rights. Politicized staff unions disrupted operations in certain fields, complicating management enforcement.

UNRWA installations faced misuse risks, with documented cases of armed groups exploiting facilities for military purposes. The agency responded by condemning violations, sealing affected sites, and reporting incidents to relevant authorities. Quarterly inspections covered 99 % of facilities in 2023, demonstrating proactive monitoring despite security constraints in conflict zones.

The review formulated 50 recommendations across eight categories: donor engagement, governance, internal oversight, staff neutrality, facility protection, education, staff unions, and cooperation with other United Nations entities. Key proposals included establishing a centralized neutrality investigations unit, enhancing early-stage recruitment screening, updating the Code of Ethics with mandatory training, increasing transparency in donor communications, and strengthening oversight of educational content to enforce zero tolerance for incitement.

Because the review confirmed robust existing frameworks while identifying capacity gaps exacerbated by resource limitations, UNRWA committed to full implementation. The Secretary-General accepted all recommendations, agreeing with Commissioner-General Philippe Lazzarini to develop a high-level action plan. By August 2025, UNRWA reported completing 20 recommendations, with the remaining 30 in active progress despite operational disruptions from conflict and legislative restrictions.

A separate investigation by the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) addressed the specific allegations of staff involvement in the 7 October 2023 attacks. OIOS examined 19 cases, concluding its probe in August 2024. Investigators reviewed information provided by Israeli authorities during visits, analyzed UNRWA records, and consulted public sources. Limitations arose because much evidentiary material remained in Israeli custody, preventing independent authentication.

Findings varied by case. In one instance, allegations stemmed from misidentification, allowing the staff member to resume duties. Nine cases lacked sufficient evidence, closing investigations. For the remaining 9 cases, available information indicated possible involvement if authenticated, leading UNRWA to terminate contracts in the agency’s interest. These outcomes reinforced the Colonna review’s conclusion that isolated breaches do not indicate systemic compromise.

UNRWA advanced implementation through a cross-departmental task force. Priorities included enhanced staff vetting, expanded neutrality training in Arabic, and improved donor integrity briefings. By June 2025, measures strengthened oversight of installations and education programmes, embedding zero-tolerance policies for problematic content.

The reviews highlighted causal dynamics: protracted conflict and occupation created environments conducive to breaches, yet UNRWA‘s mechanisms mitigated risks more effectively than peers. Absence of evidence for widespread infiltration undercut claims of institutional bias, while recommendations addressed verifiable gaps in capacity and enforcement.

Donors referenced the Colonna findings in resuming contributions, stabilizing finances temporarily. The General Assembly incorporated the review in resolutions affirming UNRWA‘s mandate, urging accelerated implementation. These independent processes provided verifiable baselines for assessing neutrality, distinguishing substantiated issues from unsubstantiated allegations.

UNRWA integrated recommendations into ongoing transformation efforts, focusing on institutional culture and accountability. Progress reports documented achievements across categories, sustaining gains amid adversity. The reviews established that UNRWA neutrality frameworks, when fully resourced, align with humanitarian principles under extreme conditions.

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Israeli Legislation and Implementation of the UNRWA Ban (2024–2025)

The Israeli Knesset adopted two laws on 28 October 2024 that prohibit the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) from conducting activities within territory Israel regards as sovereign and bar Israeli authorities from any contact with the agency or its representatives. These measures entered into force 90 days later, on 30 January 2025, marking the first instance of a United Nations Member State enacting domestic legislation to restrict operations of a United Nations entity mandated by the General Assembly. The laws originated from proposals advanced by Knesset members citing concerns over alleged staff ties to armed groups, building on intensified scrutiny following the 7 October 2023 attacks.

One law explicitly forbids UNRWA from maintaining offices, providing services, or undertaking activities—directly or indirectly—within Israel’s sovereign territory, which Israeli authorities interpret to include occupied East Jerusalem. The second prohibits Israeli officials from engaging with UNRWA, effectively severing coordination mechanisms essential for humanitarian access in Gaza and the West Bank. Because Israel controls entry points, visa issuance for international staff, and deconfliction protocols for aid convoys, these prohibitions disrupted operational continuity immediately upon implementation.

Israeli authorities notified the United Nations on 3 November 2024 of withdrawal from the 1967 exchange of letters that had facilitated UNRWA assistance to Palestine refugees. A subsequent communication on 24 January 2025 demanded evacuation of UNRWA premises in East Jerusalem by 30 January 2025. These steps aligned with the legislation’s timeline, prompting relocation of West Bank field office functions and curtailment of visas for international personnel. As the occupying Power, Israel bears obligations under international humanitarian law to facilitate relief operations, yet the laws imposed direct impediments.

Implementation began manifesting in late January 2025. Israeli forces curtailed visas for UNRWA international staff, compelling relocation of headquarters functions from East Jerusalem. Coordination for aid convoys into Gaza halted through official channels, complicating deconfliction and increasing risks to local staff. In the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, several installations closed, affecting service delivery. Six UNRWA schools in East Jerusalem suspended in-person learning for 783 students, transitioning to remote modalities for the remainder of the academic year.

The laws exacerbated existing access restrictions. Prior to enforcement, Israeli authorities had limited humanitarian entries, but post-30 January 2025, absence of formal contact mechanisms rendered movement of supplies and personnel dependent on ad hoc arrangements. In Gaza, where UNRWA remained the primary distributor of aid, disruptions threatened continuity of food assistance, health services, and shelter provision for displaced populations. Local staff continued operations amid heightened risks, drawing on embedded community networks, yet without official coordination, convoy safety diminished.

United Nations officials condemned the measures as violations of the Charter, the Convention on Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, and occupying Power responsibilities. Secretary-General António Guterres warned that implementation would prevent UNRWA from fulfilling its General Assembly mandate in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem. The laws set a precedent potentially undermining United Nations operations globally, as no prior Member State had legislated against a mandated agency in this manner.

Humanitarian impacts emerged rapidly. Closure of East Jerusalem facilities interrupted administrative oversight for West Bank operations. Visa restrictions reduced international staff presence, straining management capacity. In Gaza, reliance on UNRWA for essential services—reaching nearly the entire population during peak displacement—faced collapse risks without alternative providers at scale. The agency’s direct-delivery model, employing predominantly local personnel, mitigated immediate total breakdown, but sustained restrictions eroded effectiveness.

Because the legislation targeted coordination and presence rather than explicitly banning services in Gaza, UNRWA adapted by rerouting functions and leveraging partnerships. Clinics and distribution points in the West Bank and Gaza remained operational where physically accessible, though supply chains suffered from lack of facilitated entry. The measures compounded pre-existing challenges, including destruction of infrastructure and staff losses from conflict.

International responses included General Assembly actions deploring the laws and affirming support for UNRWA. Overwhelming votes rejected impediments to the agency’s mandate, underscoring its indispensability. Donors maintained contributions, recognizing absence of viable replacements. The laws thus isolated Israel diplomatically while failing to dismantle UNRWA operations entirely due to the agency’s entrenched local structure.

Enforcement revealed non-linear dynamics: formal bans accelerated informal adaptations, preserving core services at reduced efficiency. Israeli authorities maintained that alternative aid mechanisms could replace UNRWA, yet no entity matched its reach or infrastructure. Implementation highlighted tensions between domestic sovereignty claims and international obligations in occupied territory.

By mid-2025, UNRWA reported sustained delivery despite constraints, attributing resilience to community integration and staff commitment. Restrictions nonetheless increased vulnerability, particularly for education and health programmes in East Jerusalem. The episode demonstrated causal chains from legislative action to operational friction, with implications for broader United Nations immunity and humanitarian access principles.

International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion and General Assembly Actions

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered its advisory opinion on 22 October 2025 in response to General Assembly resolution 79/232 adopted on 19 December 2024. Summary of the Advisory Opinion of 22 October 2025 – International Court of Justice – October 2025 The Court addressed Israel’s obligations as a United Nations Member State and occupying Power regarding the presence and activities of the United Nations, including UNRWA, in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. The opinion originated from escalating restrictions, including Israeli legislation enacted in October 2024 and implemented from January 2025, which prohibited UNRWA operations in areas under Israeli control and barred official contact.

The ICJ examined Israel’s claims that UNRWA lacked neutrality due to alleged infiltration by Hamas and misuse of facilities. Israel asserted that security concerns justified impediments to UNRWA activities. The Court reviewed available information, including investigations into staff involvement in the 7 October 2023 attacks and broader affiliation allegations. Findings concluded that the evidence did not substantiate claims of systemic lack of neutrality. Isolated cases leading to dismissals of 9 staff members remained insufficient to characterize UNRWA as non-neutral overall.

The ICJ affirmed Israel’s obligation under Article 2(5) of the Charter to cooperate with the United Nations and provide assistance in actions taken in accordance with the Charter. As occupying Power, Israel must facilitate relief schemes, particularly those operated by UNRWA, without obstruction. The Court emphasized UNRWA‘s indispensable role as the primary provider of humanitarian assistance in Gaza since October 2023, noting its provision of education, health care, and relief amid widespread destruction.

Because Israeli measures, including termination of the 1967 agreement facilitating UNRWA operations and enactment of restrictive laws, impeded United Nations functions, the ICJ ruled them inconsistent with international obligations. The opinion highlighted that Israel cannot unilaterally determine the presence or modalities of United Nations entities in occupied territory. Restrictions on visas, coordination, and access violated privileges and immunities, endangering personnel and operations.

The ICJ underscored positive duties to ensure essential supplies reach the population, referencing Articles 55 and 56 of the Fourth Geneva Convention. In Gaza’s context, where alternative mechanisms failed to match scale—evidenced by high casualties at non-UNRWA distribution sites—dependence on UNRWA intensified. The Court rejected justifications based on unsubstantiated neutrality breaches, affirming impartiality requirements under humanitarian law.

Vice-President Julia Sebutinde dissented, arguing insufficient consideration of host State security concerns and Hamas infiltration allegations. Separate opinions elaborated on cooperation obligations and framework governing UNRWA-Israel relations. The majority view prevailed, clarifying that Member States must respect United Nations operational independence in occupied territories.

The General Assembly responded promptly. On an unspecified date in late 2025, it adopted resolution A/80/L.26 welcoming the advisory opinion. General Assembly Adopts Resolution Welcoming International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Israel’s Obligations Related to Occupied Palestinian Territory – United Nations Meetings Coverage – 2025 Adopted by 139 votes in favour, 12 against, and 19 abstentions, the resolution demanded full compliance with Israel’s legal obligations as outlined by the ICJ.

The text demanded immediate facilitation of life-saving humanitarian assistance through United Nations entities, particularly UNRWA. It rejected actions undermining UNRWA‘s mandate and called for unrestricted operations across the Occupied Palestinian Territory. The resolution reaffirmed the United Nations’ permanent responsibility toward the question of Palestine and UNRWA‘s pivotal role in providing services pending resolution.

Commissioner-General Philippe Lazzarini hailed the vote as strong endorsement of the ICJ finding that allegations of Hamas infiltration and non-neutrality lacked substantiation. The resolution signaled overwhelming international support for UNRWA amid attempts to diminish its operations.

Because the advisory opinion and subsequent resolution clarified binding obligations without enforcement mechanisms, implementation depended on State cooperation and multilateral pressure. The General Assembly’s action reinforced diplomatic isolation of restrictive measures, urging donors to sustain funding and States to uphold facilitation duties.

The ICJ opinion established precedents on Member State duties toward United Nations agencies in occupied territories. It distinguished operational neutrality from isolated breaches, prioritizing humanitarian access over unsubstantiated security claims. General Assembly endorsement amplified legal clarity, framing non-compliance as contravention of Charter principles.

Funding Dynamics, Donor Positions, and Humanitarian Implications as of December 2025

The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) operates under a programme budget for the biennium 2024-2025 that totals approximately $1.79 billion, with $880 million allocated for 2024 and $914 million for 2025. UNITED NATIONS RELIEF AND WORKS AGENCY FOR PALESTINE REFUGEES IN THE NEAR EAST Programme Budget 2024-2025 – UNRWA – 2023 Forecast income, based on donor indications including multi-year agreements, stands at $813 million for 2024 and $851 million for 2025, resulting in projected cash shortfalls of $67 million in 2024 and $63 million in 2025. These deficits arise from chronic underfunding that has persisted for over a decade, driven by rising refugee needs, inflation, and competing global crises, compelling the agency to rely on extraordinary donor support and internal measures to sustain operations.

Voluntary contributions fund 91 % of core activities, with the remaining 9 % derived from the United Nations regular budget (6 %), indirect support costs, and interest. The funding model generates repeated liquidity crises, as demand for services consistently outpaces inflows. In 2024, UNRWA mobilized $1.4 billion in pledges and received $1.3 billion in contributions, marking the second-highest annual income after 2023, reflecting solidarity amid the Gaza emergency. Institutional donors provided 81.7 % of pledges, private partners 10 %, and United Nations entities 8.2 %. Fifteen donors granted flexibility for $115 million across portals, enabling prioritization of urgent needs.

Donor positions diverged sharply in 2025. The United States maintained a suspension of contributions, enacted through domestic legislation prohibiting funding until at least March 2025 and potentially longer. Sweden ceased all contributions for 2025, citing concerns over neutrality mechanisms. The Netherlands initiated a phased reduction over four years. These withdrawals stemmed from lingering allegations of staff misconduct, despite independent reviews finding no evidence of systemic issues. Other donors imposed conditions on future pledges, reflecting domestic political pressures.

Conversely, the European Union and its member States remained the largest collective contributor, providing predictable support. The United Nations regular budget approved an additional $4.98 million for 2025 to implement neutrality review recommendations, including new posts and oversight enhancements. Revised estimates relating to the proposed programme budget for 2025 under section 26, Palestine refugees – Secretary-General – October 2024 This appropriation complemented voluntary inflows, addressing gaps in governance and staff screening.

Because suspensions by key donors reduced expected revenues, UNRWA carried forward $35 million in liabilities into 2025, constraining early-year operations. Multi-year agreements from 24 donors totaling $356.4 million in 2024 provided partial predictability, yet overall volatility persisted. Private sector and individual contributions reached record levels, with $91.5 million mobilized for Gaza in 2024, offsetting institutional shortfalls through people-to-people solidarity.

Humanitarian implications intensified in Gaza, where UNRWA coordinated the primary response amid destruction affecting nearly the entire population. Israeli legislative restrictions implemented from January 2025 barred agency operations in areas under Israeli control and severed coordination, disrupting visa issuance, convoy deconfliction, and supply chains. No humanitarian assistance entered Gaza for extended periods, including over 4.5 months from March 2025 in some reports, depleting stocks of food, medicine, and fuel. Malnutrition cases rose, with deaths reported among children, exacerbated by contaminated water and collapsed sanitation.

In the West Bank, closures of East Jerusalem facilities interrupted education for 783 students and administrative oversight. Across fields, protection risks mounted: displaced families faced overcrowding, restricted health access, and shortages of non-food items. UNRWA staff losses exceeded 300 killed since October 2023, the highest in United Nations history, straining delivery capacity. Local personnel sustained services through community networks, yet without facilitated access, efficiency declined.

The funding constraints and access barriers created causal chains: donor suspensions reduced reserves, legislative bans blocked replenishment, and operational disruptions amplified vulnerability. In Gaza, reliance on UNRWA for health consultations, psychosocial support, and shelter reached millions, with no equivalent alternative at scale. Emergency appeals for $464 million targeted Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, addressing multi-year displacements and economic crises.

Because UNRWA absorbed social tensions and provided stability, sustained underfunding risked broader regional instability. General Assembly resolutions urged increased voluntary contributions and condemned impediments, yet enforcement remained limited. The agency’s resilience—delivering to 3.2 million beneficiaries in 2024 despite adversity—highlighted embedded infrastructure, but projected 2025 shortfalls threatened mandate fulfillment absent renewed commitments.

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Concept	Key Facts and Data	Details and Analysis	Source (where applicable)
Establishment and Mandate of UNRWA	Established by General Assembly resolution 302 (IV) on 8 December 1949; Mandate renewed periodically, most recently extended in resolutions affirming its role pending a political solution.	UNRWA provides direct relief, education, health, and social services to Palestine refugees and their descendants; Unique generational registration distinguishes it from other refugee agencies; Operations in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Gaza Strip, and West Bank including East Jerusalem.	No publicly accessible primary document available as of 13 December 2025 for exact resolution text in verified session; data drawn from consistent UN references.
Registered Refugees and Service Reach	Approximately 5.9 million registered Palestine refugees eligible for services; Over 30,000 staff, predominantly local Palestinians.	Population growth from descendant inclusion and demographics; Services include education for hundreds of thousands, health consultations for millions, relief to vulnerable groups; Direct-delivery model ensures embedded presence and efficiency.
Operational Structure	Over 700 schools, 140+ health centres; Split headquarters in Gaza and Amman.	Focus on basic education aligned with host curricula plus UN values; Primary health care, relief/social services, camp improvement; Hybrid staffing with local recruits for community integration and international oversight.
Allegations of Staff Involvement (2023-2024)	Initial claims of 12 staff in 7 October 2023 attacks, expanded to 19; Broader assertions of ties to Hamas/PIJ.	UNRWA terminated contracts immediately; OIOS investigation found possible involvement in 9 cases (leading to terminations), insufficient evidence in others; No evidence for systemic infiltration.
Broader Neutrality Claims	Allegations of 10% Gaza staff ties; Issues with educational materials, facility misuse, staff social media.	UNRWA screens against sanctions lists; Reviews textbooks, produces supplementary materials; Quarterly inspections covered 99% facilities in 2023; Processed 151 breach allegations (2022-2024).
Independent Reviews	Colonna-led review (April 2024): 50 recommendations; Found UNRWA mechanisms more robust than peers.	No substantiating evidence from Israel for broad claims; Challenges from environment, not systemic failure; Recommendations on oversight, vetting, education.	Independent Review of Mechanisms and Procedures to Ensure Adherence by UNRWA to the Humanitarian Principle of Neutrality – United Nations – April 2024
Israeli Legislation (2024-2025)	Two laws passed 28 October 2024, effective 30 January 2025; Ban UNRWA activities in Israeli-controlled areas, prohibit contact.	Withdrawal from 1967 agreement; Demands evacuation of East Jerusalem premises; Disrupts visas, aid coordination.
Implementation Impacts	Closure of East Jerusalem facilities; Reduced international staff; Convoy deconfliction halted; School suspensions affecting 783 students.	Operations continue via local staff and adaptations; Increased risks in Gaza; No alternative at scale.
ICJ Advisory Opinion	Delivered 22 October 2025; Rejected infiltration claims as unsubstantiated; Affirmed UNRWA neutrality and indispensability.	Israel obligated to facilitate UN operations; Restrictions violate Charter and humanitarian law; No replacement without transition.	No publicly accessible primary document available as of 13 December 2025 (case documents exist but full opinion PDF not verified in session).
General Assembly Actions	Resolutions welcoming ICJ opinion; Overwhelming support (e.g., 139 in favour on related text); Mandate extensions and condemnations of impediments.	Demanded compliance, unrestricted access; Affirmed UNRWA as backbone of Gaza response.
Funding Dynamics (2024-2025)	Programme budget ~US$1.79 billion biennium; 2024 income high (~US$1.3-1.4 billion received); Shortfalls projected US$67 million (2024), US$63 million (2025), carried liabilities US$35 million.	Donor suspensions (~US$450 million initially) mostly resumed; Record private contributions; US and Sweden maintained/reduced support.	Programme Budget 2024-2025 – UNRWA – 2023; Annual Operational Report 2024 references.
Humanitarian Implications	Essential services to millions in Gaza; Staff deaths over 300; Access blocks lead to malnutrition, service collapses.	UNRWA irreplaceable; Risks instability if dismantled; Resilience through local integration but erosion from restrictions.

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