IL-10, also known as interleukin-10, is a cytokine that plays a crucial role in immune regulation and inflammation control. It is produced by various cell types, including immune cells such as macrophages, T cells, and B cells, as well as non-immune cells like epithelial cells.
The dysregulation of cytokines, including IL-10, has been observed in various diseases, including the ongoing global pandemic of COVID-19 caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. COVID-19 is characterized by a dysregulated immune response, particularly in severe cases where a cytokine storm occurs.
The cytokine storm refers to an excessive and uncontrolled release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to widespread inflammation and tissue damage. This hyperinflammatory state contributes to the severity of the disease and can lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multi-organ failure.
Several therapeutic strategies have been proposed to target the cytokine storm in COVID-19, including the use of immune modulators and monoclonal antibodies against specific cytokines. Corticosteroids, such as dexamethasone, have been shown to be effective in reducing mortality in severe COVID-19 cases by suppressing inflammation.
Similarly, monoclonal antibodies targeting IL-6, such as tocilizumab, have shown promise in improving outcomes in patients with severe COVID-19.
Furthermore, IL-10 may also have a role in managing the post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PACS), commonly referred to as long COVID. PACS encompasses a range of persistent symptoms and complications experienced by some individuals even after the acute infection has resolved.
The underlying mechanisms of PACS are not yet fully understood, but dysregulated immune responses and persistent inflammation are thought to play a role. IL-10’s ability to modulate immune responses and inflammation makes it a potential therapeutic option for managing PACS.
Research into the role of IL-10 in COVID-19 is ongoing, and clinical trials are evaluating the efficacy of IL-10-based therapies in mitigating the cytokine storm and improving outcomes in patients. Preliminary studies have shown promising results, but more data is needed to establish the safety and efficacy of IL-10-based treatments in COVID-19 and its associated complications.
In conclusion, cytokines, including IL-10, play a crucial role in immune regulation and inflammation control. The dysregulation of cytokines, particularly the cytokine storm observed in severe cases of COVID-19, contributes to the pathogenesis of the disease. IL-10, with its potent anti-inflammatory properties, holds promise as a therapeutic target in COVID-19 to modulate the excessive immune response and mitigate the cytokine storm.
Furthermore, IL-10 may also have a role in managing the persistent symptoms and complications of COVID-19 in individuals with PACS. Continued research into IL-10 and its therapeutic potential in COVID-19 is essential to improve our understanding of the disease and develop effective treatment strategies.
IL-10 structure and signaling pathway
IL-10 is a cytokine that plays a crucial role in immune regulation and inflammation control. Understanding its structure and signaling pathway is essential for unraveling its functional mechanisms and potential therapeutic applications. The human IL-10 gene, located on chromosome 1, encodes the IL-10 protein. The expression of IL-10 is regulated by various genetic elements and polymorphisms that can influence its production.
The biologically active form of IL-10 is a soluble homodimer with a molecular weight of 36 kDa. The dimer is composed of two monomers, and each monomer contains six α-helices stabilized by two intrachain disulfide bonds. IL-10 binds to a heterotetrameric IL-10 receptor (IL-10R) complex for signaling. This receptor complex consists of two IL-10R-alpha (IL-10RA) subunits, responsible for ligand binding and target specificity, and two IL-10R-beta (IL-10RB) subunits, involved in signal transduction. IL-10RA is predominantly expressed by lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, while IL-10RB is constitutively expressed by nearly all cell types.
The IL-10 signaling pathway involves several intracellular components, including Jak1, Tyrosine kinase 2 (Tyk2), and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Upon IL-10 binding to IL-10RA, the receptor complex undergoes phosphorylation by Jak1 and Tyk2, leading to the phosphorylation of specific tyrosine motifs on the IL-10RA intracellular domain. This phosphorylation enables the recruitment and phosphorylation of STAT3. Phosphorylated STAT3 forms dimers and translocates to the nucleus, where it binds to target gene promoters and initiates their transcription.
STAT3-responsive genes induced by IL-10 signaling include cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS-3), which acts as a negative feedback regulator of IL-10 signaling and inhibits pro-inflammatory gene expression. IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RN) is another target gene induced by STAT3. It functions as a decoy protein, preventing the binding of IL-1β to its receptor and inhibiting pro-inflammatory signaling. IL-10 signaling also suppresses STAT6 activation and the expression of IL-4/IL-13-responsive genes in monocytes and dendritic cells.
In addition to STAT3, IL-10RA can also activate STAT1 and STAT5, leading to the formation of different STAT heterocomplexes and generating various downstream transcriptional effects. IL-10 can also modulate transcription through the activation of PI3K/Akt/Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 Beta (GSK3β) and PI3K/Akt/mTORC1 signaling cascades in macrophages.
Deficiencies in IL-10 and IL-10R have been associated with monogenic inborn errors of immunity (IEI) that cause early-onset inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Consanguinity is often observed in patients with IL-10 deficiency and IL-10R deficiency. These deficiencies can lead to auto-inflammation, enteropathy, dermatological manifestations, lymphoma not related to Epstein Barr Virus (EBV), and failure to thrive.
Understanding the structure and signaling pathway of IL-10 provides valuable insights into its role in immune regulation and inflammation control. This knowledge can contribute to the development of targeted therapies that harness the immunomodulatory properties of IL-10 for the treatment of various diseases, including those characterized by dysregulated immune responses and inflammation. Further research is needed to fully elucidate the therapeutic potential of IL-10 and its signaling pathway in various
IL-10 systemic effects
IL-10, originally known as “cytokine synthesis inhibitory factor,” has evolved to be recognized as a crucial immunoregulatory cytokine with diverse effects on immune cells. Its actions can be both anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive, as well as immunostimulatory, depending on the context and the target cells involved.
During infections caused by various pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, IL-10 serves as a master regulator of immunity. It plays a pivotal role in limiting or terminating inflammation and protecting the host. IL-10 is typically produced by innate immune cells during the later stages of an inflammatory response.
Its secretion at the site of inflammation helps maintain a balance between effective pathogen elimination and preventing excessive immune-mediated damage. Interestingly, many pathogens exploit IL-10’s immunosuppressive activity to evade the host immune system and create an environment favorable for their survival.
IL-10 exerts potent immunosuppressive effects on monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, which are the cells expressing higher levels of IL-10 receptors. It inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines by these cells and hinders their differentiation, maturation, and migration to lymphoid organs.
IL-10 also dampens the antigen-presenting capabilities of monocytes and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) by downregulating the expression of major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) molecules and co-stimulatory molecules. Moreover, IL-10 acts on CD4+ T cells, inhibiting their activation, proliferation, and secretion of various cytokines, as well as their cytotoxic activity.
By coordinating these actions, IL-10 suppresses the inflammatory immune response directly by inhibiting the activity of macrophages and dendritic cells and indirectly by limiting T cell activation, differentiation, and effector function, ultimately promoting peripheral tolerance.
However, IL-10 also exhibits immunostimulatory activities. It has a potent stimulatory effect on B lymphocytes, enhancing their survival, growth, activation, and differentiation into antibody-secreting plasma cells. IL-10 plays a crucial role in the differentiation and functioning of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and supports the survival of T cells that would otherwise undergo apoptotic cell death.
Regulatory B cells (Bregs), which are immune-suppressive subsets of B cells, also regulate inflammation primarily through IL-10-mediated inhibitory mechanisms. Additionally, IL-10 promotes the proliferation, cytolytic activity, and effector functions of natural killer (NK) cells. It directly stimulates mast cells, leading to their expansion, activation, and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
IL-10 can also have complex effects on murine T cells, acting as a growth cofactor and promoting proliferative responses in the presence of certain cytokines. It can also induce cytotoxic differentiation, driving the proliferation and differentiation of precursor CD8+ T cells into effector cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). In vivo, IL-10 administration in mice can lead to increased graft rejection and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) mortality. In transgenic murine models, local expression of IL-10 in specific tissues can result in marked inflammation and immune cell recruitment.
Beyond its impact on the immune system, IL-10 plays critical roles in non-immune cells. It contributes to central and peripheral nervous system homeostasis by reducing neuronal injury and promoting survival, axon regeneration, and adult neurogenesis. IL-10 is also involved in wound repair and gut homeostasis, facilitating wound closure, stimulating intestinal epithelial cell proliferation, and promoting tissue regeneration in dermal wounds.
The pleiotropic effects of IL-10 on various immune and non-immune cell types highlight its complexity as a cytokine. Its ability to both suppress and stimulate immune responses underscores its critical role in maintaining immune balance and modulating the inflammatory environment. Further research is necessary to fully understand the intricate mechanisms underlying IL-10’s systemic effects and harness its potential for therapeutic interventions in different disease settings.
reference lonk :https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1161067/full
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