Addiction is a formidable health crisis in the United States, affecting millions of lives and posing significant challenges to both individuals and society as a whole. As of 2017, a staggering 38% of adults grappled with substance use disorder, reflecting the pervasive nature of this issue (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2018).
The toll of addiction becomes even more alarming when considering the statistics related to alcohol-related deaths, where more than 95,000 lives are lost annually, shortening the lifespan of excessive drinkers by an average of 29 years (CDC, 2020). This collective loss amounts to a staggering 2.8 million years of potential life, emphasizing the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to address addiction.
A Demographic Snapshot: Addiction Across Age Groups
Addiction is indiscriminate in its impact, affecting individuals across all age groups. In 2017, approximately 4% of children aged 12 to 17 faced substance use disorder, equating to over 992,000 teens, while young adults aged 18 to 25 experienced a prevalence of 14.8%, or 1 in 7 individuals (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2018).
Recent data from 2020 reveals a continued struggle, with 21.4% of people aged 12 or older (59.3 million people) having used illicit drugs in the past year, and a substantial 40.3 million people in the same age range experiencing substance use disorder in the past year (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated the situation, with 13% of Americans resorting to or increasing substance use as a coping mechanism for stress and emotional challenges related to the pandemic (CDC, 2020).
The Looming Threat of Polysubstance Use and Fentanyl Contamination
The complexity of addiction is heightened by the emergence of polysubstance use, where individuals are exposed to more than one drug, sometimes without their knowledge. A 10-state study found that 57% of overdose deaths involved individuals testing positive for fentanyl in combination with heroin, cocaine, or methamphetamine (Mattson et al., 2021). Illicitly manufactured fentanyl, known for its potency, poses a significant risk, being approximately 50 times more potent than heroin. The presence of fentanyl in illegal drugs significantly elevates the risk of fatal overdoses (Mattson et al., 2021).
The economic toll of addiction is staggering, with Americans reportedly spending up to $57 billion annually on illicit drugs (O’Brien and Abel, 2011). This financial burden extends beyond individuals and families, costing American taxpayers more than $740 billion each year due to lost workplace productivity, healthcare expenses, and crime-related costs (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2017).
Understanding Addiction: A Neurobiological Perspective
Sussman et al. (2010) define addiction as a disorder characterized by an intense preoccupation with a behavior that produces a desired effect, equating it with changes in the firing of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system. Lüscher and Janak (2021) further elaborate, defining addiction as a disease marked by compulsive drug seeking and consumption, favoring drug rewards over natural rewards, despite negative consequences.
The neurochemistry associated with pleasure pathways in the brain plays a pivotal role in the behavioral aspects of addiction. Common neurotransmitters and hormonal systems, including serotonin, mu opioid, anandamide, norepinephrine, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-axis (HPA), are closely associated with pleasure and arousal.
Addiction involves long periods of perseveration about the desired substance and a loss of control over behavior to acquire the drug of choice (Sussman et al., 2010). Brain imaging studies indicate increased metabolic activity in the amygdala when abstinent substance users are exposed to drug-associated cues or imagery (Feltenstein and See, 2008). This heightened activity in the amygdala contributes to the challenge of controlling cravings.
Current Approaches to Addiction Treatment and Cravings
Addressing addiction and its associated cravings requires a multifaceted approach encompassing residential care, 12-step programs, and pharmacological interventions such as Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT). Various levels of care, including partial hospitalization programs (PHP), intensive outpatient programs (IOP), outpatient programs (OP), and individual therapy, cater to different intensities of addiction and individual needs.
Inpatient treatment, often incorporating individual and group therapy, pharmacology, and support groups like Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Anonymous (NA), aims to equip individuals with coping skills for maintaining sobriety. However, the efficacy of interventions for substance use disorders is hindered by the compromised functioning of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a region crucial for self-control (Markus & Hornsveld, 2017).
While MAT, using drugs like methadone, naltrexone, and suboxone, has shown effectiveness in reducing cravings for opioid disorders, feasibility issues persist, including medication misuse and irregular administration (Markus & Hornsveld, 2017). Controversy surrounds the inclusion of MAT recipients in sober living facilities, creating potential social isolation that hampers recovery (Majer et al., 2018). Moreover, for certain addictions, pharmacological options are limited (Markus & Hornsveld, 2017).
The Relapse Conundrum: A Persistent Challenge in Addiction Treatment
The issue of relapse looms large in addiction treatment, with high rates of recurrence. Despite current treatment modalities, including inpatient care, pharmacology, and support groups, relapse rates for substance use disorders can reach up to 60% (National Institute for Drug Addiction, 2020). A 1-year follow-up study even indicates rates as high as 70% (Sussman et al., 2010).
Traditional views on relapse, such as those expressed by Theodoropoulou (2020), consider it as part of the recovery process, providing an opportunity to establish connections with services and explore interventions. Engaging with services marks the initiation of a connection that facilitates the renegotiation of the relationship between the body and substances, creating a pathway for altering thoughts and feelings related to substance use disorders (Theodoropoulou, 2020).
Exploring Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing (EMDR) as an Intervention
In the pursuit of more effective interventions, Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing (EMDR) emerges as a potential candidate. Shapiro et al. (1994) proposed that EMDR, with its structured, client-centered approach, could offer a unique avenue for stabilizing substance abuse patients. By integrating behavioral, cognitive, intrapsychic, body-centered, and interactional approaches, EMDR has the potential to address ambivalence about abstinence, treatment noncompliance, present crises, and ameliorate relapse triggers and physical cravings (Shapiro et al., 1994).
The rationale behind EMDR lies in its ability to activate a dorsal frontoparietal network and transiently deactivate the amygdala through dual attention stimuli, particularly bilateral eye movements. This process leads to cognitive emotional regulation, making it a promising avenue for addiction cravings (de Voogd et al., 2018).
Psychosocial Factors: Unraveling the Craving Web
Research indicates that individuals with substance use disorders are vulnerable to psychosocial stressors that trigger drug and alcohol use (Markus & Hornsveld, 2017). Cravings, often prompted by environmental cues, can persist for extended periods after substance use cessation and are considered one of the most prominent withdrawal symptoms (Harrawood et al., 2011).
According to the National Institute for Drug Addiction (2020), people with substance use issues commonly grapple with anxiety, depression, and various environmental stressors related to occupation, family, and social environments. High adverse childhood experience (ACE) scores, as identified by Felitti et al. (1998), are associated with a range of issues, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorder (SUD).
The prevalence of psychological trauma is high among adults with SUD, with trauma history elevating the risk of PTSD. The association between emotional states, such as trauma or stress, and addiction cravings is well-established, emphasizing the need for holistic approaches to addiction treatment.
Behavioral and Biological Factors: The Intricate Dance of Cravings
Rumination about drug-related material emerges as a significant component of relapse, leading to intense cravings (Garavan & Hester, 2007). Incentive salience, a drive based on learned associations with reward cues mediated by the mesocorticolimic dopamine system, plays a crucial role in maintaining motivation to seek the drug of choice (Koob & Volkow, 2016).
Substance abuse alters responses to neutral stimuli, creating conditioned reinforcement that associates previously neutral cues with the drug, leading to heightened attentional bias and increased cravings (Garavan & Hester, 2007). Attentional bias, as discussed by Zhao et al. (2018), captures the involuntary cognitive processes of drug-dependent individuals, making them highly attuned to stimuli related to drug consumption.
Functional neuroimaging reveals prefrontal deficits in individuals addicted to substances, impairing their ability to control attentional biases toward drug-related stimuli. The inability to cease perseveration related to drug stimuli increases the likelihood of relapse, highlighting the importance of attentional control in addiction (Garavan & Hester, 2007).
Cravings and Vivid Imagery: The Role of Addiction Memory
While hedonic processes like liking and craving are primary motivators for drug and alcohol consumption, cognitive processes such as memory also contribute to these drives (Garavan & Hester, 2007). Koob (2008) emphasizes that the compulsion to consume drugs or alcohol and the loss of control over intake stem from multiple motivating mechanisms.
Hedonic homeostatic dysregulation, characterized by a negative emotional state upon denial of access to the drug of choice, contributes to the salience of cues eliciting drug seeking and relapse (Koob, 2008). Addiction-related memories, both episodic and classically learned associations with cues and effects, play a crucial role in the experience of cravings. Episodic drug memories, rooted in personal experiences with the drug, lead to mental preoccupation and intense cravings (Müller, 2013).
TABLE 1
Hedonic processes refer to the mental and physiological mechanisms that underlie our experience of pleasure and pain. These processes play a fundamental role in shaping our behavior, as we are naturally drawn to experiences that provide us with pleasure and avoid those that cause us pain.
There are two main types of hedonic processes:
- Appraisal: This involves the evaluation of stimuli as either pleasant or unpleasant. This evaluation is based on a variety of factors, including the sensory characteristics of the stimulus, our past experiences with similar stimuli, and our current internal state.
- Consumption: This involves the actual experience of pleasure or pain. This experience is mediated by a complex network of neural pathways, including the mesolimbic dopamine system.
Hedonic processes are important for a number of reasons. They help us to identify and pursue rewarding experiences, which are essential for our survival and well-being. They also play a role in learning and memory, as we are more likely to remember experiences that we found to be pleasurable.
However, hedonic processes can also lead us astray. If we are too focused on pursuing pleasure, we may make choices that are not in our best long-term interests. For example, we may overeat unhealthy foods, engage in risky behaviors, or neglect our responsibilities.
It is important to strike a balance between hedonic and non-hedonic motivations. We should strive to find experiences that are both pleasurable and meaningful. This will allow us to live a fulfilling and balanced life.
Here are some additional points about hedonic processes:
- Hedonic processes are influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, personality, and culture.
- Hedonic processes can be altered through a variety of interventions, such as medication, therapy, and lifestyle changes.
- Hedonic processes are a complex area of study, and there is still much that we do not know about them.
Conclusion: Toward Holistic and Innovative Approaches
The landscape of addiction is complex, impacting individuals across demographics and presenting intricate challenges to conventional treatment modalities. The high rates of relapse underscore the pressing need for innovative interventions that consider the multifaceted nature of addiction, addressing neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral factors contributing to cravings.
Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing (EMDR) emerges as a promising intervention, with its potential to address the neurobiological underpinnings of addiction cravings. By activating specific neural networks and transiently deactivating the amygdala, EMDR offers a unique approach to cognitive emotional regulation, potentially reducing cravings and improving treatment outcomes.
As we delve deeper into the intricacies of addiction, it becomes clear that a holistic understanding of psychosocial and biological factors is essential for developing effective interventions. The interplay of memory, attentional biases, and emotional states underscores the need for personalized, comprehensive treatment approaches that go beyond traditional methods.
Moving forward, the field of addiction treatment must embrace emerging research findings and leverage innovative therapies like EMDR to enhance the arsenal against this pervasive health crisis. By doing so, we can aspire to not only reduce relapse rates but also provide individuals struggling with addiction a more hopeful and effective path to recovery.
TABLE 2
The Transformative Power of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy
A Beacon of Hope for Trauma Survivors
Trauma, an indelible mark on the human experience, can cast a long shadow, shaping the way individuals perceive and navigate the world. For those grappling with the aftermath of traumatic experiences, the advent of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy stands as a beacon of hope. Developed as a psychotherapeutic intervention, EMDR offers a unique pathway to healing, particularly for conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and a myriad of related mental health challenges.
Understanding EMDR: Unraveling the Threads of Trauma
EMDR is a psychotherapy technique meticulously designed to guide individuals through the labyrinth of traumatic memories. At its core, this therapeutic approach integrates structured therapy sessions with specific stimuli, such as eye movements, sounds, or taps, to facilitate the processing of distressing experiences. Originally tailored for PTSD, EMDR has emerged as a versatile tool, extending its healing touch to various conditions, including anxiety, mood disorders, and substance use disorders.
Benefits of EMDR: A Distinctive Therapeutic Landscape
One distinguishing feature of EMDR is its efficiency, often yielding results in a shorter timeframe compared to traditional psychotherapies. The therapy’s efficacy is not just measured in swiftness but in its unique features:
- Limited Exposure: Unlike some therapeutic approaches that require extended exposure to distressing memories, EMDR minimizes the time individuals spend reliving traumatic events.
- Minimal Verbalization: EMDR does not mandate exhaustive discussions about the intricate details of traumatic experiences. This characteristic proves invaluable, especially for those who find articulating such memories overwhelmingly challenging.
- Absence of Homework Assignments: In contrast to interventions involving homework assignments or challenging thoughts and beliefs, EMDR relies on its distinctive protocol, making it accessible and impactful.
Unlocking the Healing Mechanism: The Adaptive Information Processing (AIP) Model
At the heart of EMDR lies the Adaptive Information Processing (AIP) model, a conceptual framework illuminating the intricate workings of memory and its maladaptive storage in the face of trauma. According to the AIP model, individuals possess an innate system for processing and storing new information in memory. However, when faced with a traumatic encounter, this system falters, leading to the distorted storage of thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations. The consequence is often the emergence of PTSD and related mental health symptoms.
EMDR acts as a catalyst for the resolution of these symptoms by guiding individuals through a process of reprocessing memories. This involves accessing and altering the maladaptive storage of traumatic experiences, fostering a transformation in thoughts and emotions associated with these memories. The therapy endeavors to align the brain’s processing with new insights, paving the way for a redefined relationship with past events and a more resilient response to future triggers.
Navigating the Phases of EMDR: A Structured Journey to Healing
EMDR unfolds as an eight-phase treatment, each phase serving as a crucial step in the transformative journey:
- Phase 1: History Taking: In collaboration with the therapist, individuals identify target memories, discuss current triggers, and establish future goals.
- Phase 2: Preparing the Client: Clients are introduced to the mechanics of EMDR, including the role of eye movements and other exercises in the therapeutic process.
- Phase 3: Assessment: Activation of the targeted memory occurs, involving the identification and assessment of its components, such as images, thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations.
- Phase 4: Desensitization: Clients focus on the memory while engaging in eye movement exercises, reporting emerging thoughts. Repetition of this process occurs until the distress associated with the original memory diminishes.
- Phase 5: Installation: Reinforcement of new thoughts, feelings, and beliefs related to the initially distressing memory takes place.
- Phase 6: Body Scan: Clients observe physical responses while contemplating the incident and new thoughts about the memory. Additional eye movement exercises are performed if negative physical responses persist.
- Phase 7: Closure: The session concludes, with additional protocols employed if the memory remains unresolved.
- Phase 8: Reevaluation: Subsequent sessions begin with an evaluation of progress, discussion of new memories, and collaborative planning for the targeting of future memories.
The EMDR Session: A Voyage to Empowerment
In a typical EMDR session, individuals are guided through the structured eight-step process, providing them with a compass to navigate the recesses of their traumatic memories. Through focused contemplation, eye movements, and other exercises, clients unearth insights and form new thoughts. As the memory undergoes processing, the overwhelming distress begins to recede, opening a gateway for the exploration of related memories—a sign of healing in progress.
Post-session, individuals often report a heightened sense of empowerment over their memories and an enhanced ability to confront present challenges. The newfound resilience extends to their capacity to navigate future situations, marking a pivotal shift in their journey toward healing.
The Verdict: EMDR’s Endorsement by Research and Institutions
Endorsed by a plethora of national and international organizations, EMDR has earned its place as a gold standard for trauma-focused therapy. Backed by over 30 positive controlled studies, the therapy boasts an impressive track record, with studies indicating that 84% to 94% of single-trauma victims no longer meet the criteria for PTSD after just three 90-minute sessions.
Esteemed organizations, including the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ISTSS), National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Department of Veterans Affairs/Department of Defense, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and the World Health Organization (WHO), have all lent their support to the effectiveness of EMDR.
Finding the Right Guide: Navigating the Realm of EMDR Therapists
Crucial to the success of EMDR therapy is the expertise of the therapist. To embark on this transformative journey, individuals should seek out licensed and trained mental health professionals with specific qualifications:
- Level of Training: Therapists should have comprehensive training in EMDR, with a specific focus on the individual’s problem or disorder.
- EMDRIA Approval: Ensuring that the therapist’s EMDR training is endorsed by the EMDR International Association (EMDRIA) is essential.
- Up-to-Date Knowledge: Therapists should be informed about the latest protocols and developments in EMDR, demonstrating a commitment to staying current in the field.
- Experience and Success Rate: The therapist’s experience in treating cases similar to the individual’s problem or disorder, coupled with a positive success rate, is a key consideration.
Conclusion: A New Dawn for Healing
In the tapestry of therapeutic interventions, EMDR stands out as a thread of hope for those navigating the complex terrain of trauma. Its structured approach, backed by the robust AIP model and a wealth of research, positions it as a transformative force in mental health treatment. As individuals embark on this journey, guided by skilled therapists through the phases of EMDR, they find not just
a resolution to their traumatic memories but a renewed sense of agency over their past, present, and future. With EMDR, the shadows of trauma are met with the illuminating power of healing—a testament to the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.
reference link :https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/26408066.2023.2271927
