The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has had a profound impact on global health, leaving a significant number of survivors grappling with long-term health consequences. This enduring aftermath, known as the “post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2” (PASC), or more commonly, long COVID, encompasses a broad spectrum of symptoms persisting or emerging well beyond the initial phase of acute infection. Long COVID is characterized by a constellation of symptoms including cognitive dysfunction, commonly referred to as “brain fog,” chest pain, shortness of breath (dyspnea), fatigue, and sensory disturbances. These symptoms significantly impair daily functioning and diminish the quality of life, drawing parallels to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS).
Long COVID
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Disease Name | Post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2, commonly known as long COVID |
| Definition | Presence of new or ongoing symptoms more than 12 weeks post-acute infection |
| Spectrum of disease includes cognitive blunting, chest pain, dyspnea, fatigue, sensory dysregulation, akin to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome | |
| Chronic illness common, with 41% experiencing ongoing ill health for at least 2 years | |
| Symptoms | Cognitive blunting (“brain fog”), chest pain, dyspnea, fatigue, sensory dysregulation |
| Symptoms impact daily activities and quality of life. Most common symptoms: fatigue (72%), difficulty concentrating (51%), muscle ache (49%), shortness of breath (48%) Symptoms adversely affected day-to-day activities of 79% of individuals with self-reported long COVID 20% reported their day-to-day activities had been “limited a lot” due to symptoms | |
| Risk Factors | More common in: – Ages 35 to 69 years – Females – People living in more deprived areas – Those working in social care – Ages 16 years and over and who were not working or not looking for work – Those with another activity-limiting health condition or disability |
| Prevalence | Around 1.9 million people in the UK (2.9% of the population) were experiencing self-reported long COVID as of 5 March 2023 45% of individuals experience diverse and unresolved symptoms 4 months after infection |
| 92% of individuals with self-reported long COVID had COVID-19 at least 12 weeks previously 69% reported experiencing symptoms for at least one year 41% reported experiencing symptoms for at least two years | |
| Mechanisms of Chronic Illness | Viral persistence, endothelial dysfunction, coagulation defects, immune dysregulation |
| Persistent inflammation characterized by elevated C-reactive protein and proinflammatory cytokines | |
| Underlying causes of inflammation remain unclear | |
| Dysregulation of the complement cascade implicated as a driver of inflammation in long COVID | |
| Complement Dysregulation in Long COVID | Extensive analysis of complement system in plasma samples from long COVID patients and healthy convalescent individuals |
| Activation products of classical, alternative, and terminal complement pathways significantly elevated in long COVID patients | |
| Plasma concentrations of complement components and regulators differ significantly between healthy convalescent individuals and long COVID patients | |
| Various combinations of complement analytes highly predictive of long COVID | |
| Implications | Complement dysregulation drives inflammation in long COVID, providing novel biomarkers for diagnosis and treatment |
| Biomarkers could guide personalized treatment strategies | |
| Future Directions | Further research needed to understand the role of complement dysregulation in long COVID pathogenesis |
| Clinical trials to assess the efficacy of complement-targeted therapies in long COVID treatment |
A systematic review has highlighted that nearly half (45%) of individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2 report a wide array of unresolved symptoms four months post-infection, regardless of the severity of their initial illness. Moreover, chronic health issues are a frequent aftermath, with a national survey in the UK revealing that approximately 1.9 million people, or 2.9% of the population, were experiencing symptoms consistent with long COVID. Alarmingly, 41% of these individuals reported persistent health challenges for two years or more as of March 2023, underscoring the extensive and enduring nature of the condition.
Despite the significant health and socio-economic implications of long COVID, the mechanisms underlying its development and persistence remain elusive. Theories propose a variety of pathogenic processes, including viral persistence, endothelial dysfunction, abnormalities in blood coagulation, and immune system dysregulation. Persistent inflammation, indicated by elevated levels of C-reactive protein and various proinflammatory cytokines, is a common finding in long COVID patients. However, the precise origins of this inflammatory response are not fully understood.
Emerging evidence points to the dysregulation of the complement system—a critical component of the body’s immune response—as a potential underlying mechanism. The complement system, known to be significantly disrupted in severe cases of acute COVID-19, has been associated with inflammation in various diseases. In acute COVID-19, the dysregulation of the complement system and the presence of biomarkers across all activation pathways have been predictive of disease outcomes.
To explore the role of complement dysregulation in long COVID further, a comprehensive analysis of the complement system was conducted in plasma samples from a large cohort of individuals. This cohort included both healthy convalescent individuals, who had recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection without lingering symptoms, and non-hospitalized long COVID patients. The study found significant elevations in activation products of the classical, alternative, and terminal complement pathways in long COVID patients compared to their healthy counterparts. Differences in plasma concentrations of certain complement components and regulators were also observed between the two groups. Notably, specific combinations of these analytes, including minimal panels with potential clinical applicability, showed high predictive value for the disease.
These findings shed light on the potential role of complement dysregulation in driving the inflammation associated with long COVID and offer a new set of biomarkers that could be pivotal in diagnosing and treating the condition. As the global community continues to grapple with the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, understanding and addressing the complexities of long COVID remains a critical challenge. Further research and collaboration are essential to unravel the pathogenesis of this condition, develop effective treatments, and ultimately improve the quality of life for those affected.
Complement Dysregulation and Long COVID: A Path to Understanding and Intervention
The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has ushered in a wave of long-term health complications for a significant subset of those infected. Among these, long COVID, characterized by persistent and diverse symptoms well after the acute phase of infection, poses a complex challenge. Central to the pathophysiology of long COVID, and indeed a variety of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, is the phenomenon of complement dysregulation. This article delves into the intricacies of complement system involvement in both acute SARS-CoV-2 infection and long COVID, exploring the evidence, potential mechanisms, and implications for treatment.
Evidence of Complement Dysregulation in COVID-19
A plethora of studies have consistently highlighted complement dysregulation as a hallmark of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, especially in severe cases. Biomarkers across all activation pathways of the complement system—classical, lectin, and alternative—have been ubiquitously identified in patients with acute infection. Notably, early studies revealed that the levels of specific complement biomarkers, such as the activation fragment Ba, could predict outcomes in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Moreover, progressive changes in these biomarker concentrations have been observed in severe cases, suggesting an evolving role of complement activation in the disease’s progression.
Mechanistically, complement activation in COVID-19 has been attributed to direct viral triggering of complement pathways, activation via antiviral antibodies, and indirect activation through contact with infected cells or damaged tissue. These findings have spurred interest in targeting complement pathways with therapeutics to mitigate the hyperinflammatory state associated with severe COVID-19. Although initial pilot studies using complement-blocking drugs showed promise, subsequent clinical trials have largely been disappointing, reflecting challenges such as late treatment initiation and a lack of pre-screening for complement dysregulation.
Persistent Inflammation and Long COVID
Long COVID is marked by persistent inflammation, as evidenced by elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, C-reactive protein, and serum amyloid A months after the acute infection. Studies have also reported high titers of autoantibodies and activated innate immune cells, suggesting a multifaceted immune dysregulation underlying long COVID. However, identifying a specific inflammatory trigger or therapeutic target has been elusive.
In seeking to understand long COVID’s pathophysiology, our study focused on the role of persistent complement dysregulation. We found significant elevations in markers across the classical, alternative, and terminal complement pathways in long COVID patients, excluding the lectin pathway. Notably, markers such as C5a and the terminal complement complex (TCC), known triggers of inflammation, were prominently elevated, suggesting a sustained activation of the complement system.
Complement Components and Regulators in Long COVID
Our analysis also revealed alterations in the levels of various complement components and regulators in long COVID patients. For instance, acute phase reactants like C3, C4, C5, and C9 were elevated, reflecting a net effect of complement activation and inflammation-driven synthesis. Conversely, levels of C1q were lower in long COVID cases, indicating uncompensated consumption. Additionally, elevated levels of several complement regulators were observed, pointing to an intensified but dysregulated activity, particularly within the alternative pathway.
Predictive Value of Complement Biomarkers for Long COVID
Our study identified complement biomarkers with predictive value for long COVID, with certain biomarkers and their combinations offering substantial diagnostic potential. This emphasizes the role of alternative pathway dysregulation and terminal pathway activation in long COVID, mirroring findings in acute COVID-19 but persisting into the convalescent phase.
Implications for Treatment and Future Directions
The persistent complement dysregulation in long COVID, alongside evidence of ongoing viral replication and complement system activation, suggests new avenues for therapeutic intervention. Unlike in acute COVID-19, where complement-targeted therapies have seen limited success, these interventions may hold more promise for long COVID, especially if initiated based on specific biomarker profiles.
Our findings advocate for the exploration of complement inhibitors targeting the alternative pathway in long COVID. The availability of reliable biomarkers from this study can enable precise patient selection and monitoring, offering a potential path to disrupting the proinflammatory cycle characteristic of long COVID.
In conclusion, complement dysregulation stands as a pivotal factor in the pathophysiology of long COVID, offering a promising target for therapeutic intervention. The evidence underscores the need for pilot trials to assess the efficacy of complement inhibitors, with the ultimate goal of restoring normalcy and improving outcomes for long COVID patients.
reference link : https://www.cell.com/med/fulltext/S2666-6340(24)00041-2
