Researchers at Cranfield University are working on a new test to detect SARS-CoV-2 in the wastewater of communities infected with the virus.
The wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach could provide an effective and rapid way to predict the potential spread of novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) by picking up on biomarkers in faeces and urine from disease carriers that enter the sewer system.
Rapid testing kits using paper-based devices could be used on-site at wastewater treatment plants to trace sources and determine whether there are potential COVID-19 carriers in local areas.
Dr Zhugen Yang, Lecturer in Sensor Technology at Cranfield Water Science Institute, said: “In the case of asymptomatic infections in the community or when people are not sure whether they are infected or not, real-time community sewage detection through paper analytical devices could determine whether there are COVID-19 carriers in an area to enable rapid screening, quarantine and prevention.
“If COVID-19 can be monitored in a community at an early stage through WBE, effective intervention can be taken as early as possible to restrict the movements of that local population, working to minimise the pathogen spread and threat to public health.”
Recent studies have shown that live SARS-CoV-2 can be isolated from the faeces and urine of infected people and the virus can typically survive for up to several days in an appropriate environment after exiting the human body.
The paper device is folded and unfolded in steps to filter the nucleic acids of pathogens from wastewater samples, then a biochemical reaction with preloaded reagents detects whether the nucleic acid of SARS-CoV-2 infection is present.
Results are visible to the naked eye: a green circle indicating positive and a blue circle negative. The image is credited to Cranfield University.
The paper device is folded and unfolded in steps to filter the nucleic acids of pathogens from wastewater samples, then a biochemical reaction with preloaded reagents detects whether the nucleic acid of SARS-CoV-2 infection is present.
Results are visible to the naked eye: a green circle indicating positive and a blue circle negative.
“We have already developed a paper device for testing genetic material in wastewater for proof-of-concept, and this provides clear potential to test for infection with adaption,” added Dr Yang.
“This device is cheap (costing less than £1) and will be easy to use for non-experts after further improvement.
“We foresee that the device will be able to offer a complete and immediate picture of population health once this sensor can be deployed in the near future.”
WBE is already recognised as an effective way to trace illicit drugs and obtain information on health, disease, and pathogens. Dr Yang has developed a similar paper-based device to successfully conduct tests for rapid veterinary diagnosis in India and for malaria in blood among rural populations in Uganda.
Paper analytical devices are easy to stack, store and transport because they are thin and lightweight, and can also be incinerated after use, reducing the risk of further contamination.
Funding: Further development of the test is being sponsored by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and the Royal Academy of Engineering.
COVID-19 transmission
There are two main routes of transmission of the COVID-19 virus: respiratory and contact. Respiratory droplets are generated when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Any person who is in close contact with someone who has respiratory symptoms (for example, sneezing, coughing) is at risk of being exposed to potentially infective respiratory droplets (1).
Droplets may also land on surfaces where the virus could remain viable; thus, the immediate environment of an infected individual can serve as a source of transmission (known as contact transmission).
The risk of catching the COVID-19 virus from the faeces of an infected person appears to be low. There is some evidence that the COVID-19 virus may lead to intestinal infection and be present in faeces.
Approximately 2−10% of cases of confirmed COVID-19 disease presented with diarrhoea (2−4), and two studies detected COVID-19 viral RNA fragments in the faecal matter of COVID-19 patients (5,6). However, to date only one study has cultured the COVID-19 virus from a single stool specimen (7). There have been no reports of faecal−oral transmission of the COVID-19 virus.
Persistence of the COVID-19 virus in drinking-water, faeces and sewage and on surfaces.
While persistence in drinking-water is possible, there is no current evidence from surrogate human coronaviruses that they are present in surface or groundwater sources or transmitted through contaminated drinking-water.
The COVID-19 virus is an enveloped virus, with a fragile outer membrane. Generally, enveloped viruses are less stable in the environment and are more susceptible to oxidants, such as chlorine. While there is no evidence to date about survival of the COVID-19 virus in water or sewage, the virus is likely to become inactivated significantly faster than non-enveloped human enteric viruses with known waterborne transmission (such as adenoviruses, norovirus, rotavirus and hepatitis A).
For example, one study found that a surrogate human coronavirus survived only 2 days in dechlorinated tap water and in hospital wastewater at 20° C (8).
Other studies concur, noting that the human coronaviruses transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus and mouse hepatitis virus demonstrated a 99.9% die-off in from 2 days (9) at 23° C to 2 weeks (10) at 25° C. Heat, high or low pH, sunlight and common disinfectants (such as chlorine) all facilitate die off.
It is not certain how long the virus that causes COVID-19 survives on surfaces, but it seems likely to behave like other coronaviruses.
A recent review of the survival of human coronaviruses on surfaces found large variability, ranging from 2 hours to 9 days (11). The survival time depends on a number of factors, including the type of surface, temperature, relative humidity and specific strain of the virus. The same review also found that effective inactivation could be achieved within 1 minute using common disinfectants, such as 70% ethanol or sodium hypochlorite.
Keeping water supplies safe
The COVID-19 virus has not been detected in drinking-water supplies, and based on current evidence, the risk to water supplies is low (12). Laboratory studies of surrogate coronaviruses that took place in well-controlled environments indicated that the virus could remain infectious in water contaminated with faeces for days to weeks (10).
A number of measures can be taken to improve water safety, starting with protecting the source water; treating water at the point of distribution, collection or consumption; and ensuring that treated water is safely stored at home in regularly cleaned and covered containers.
Conventional, centralized water treatment methods that utilize filtration and disinfection should inactivate the COVID-19 virus. Other human coronaviruses have been shown to be sensitive to chlorination and disinfection with ultraviolet (UV) light (13).
As enveloped viruses are surrounded by a lipid host cell membrane, which is not robust, the COVID-19 virus is likely to be more sensitive to chlorine and other oxidant disinfection processes than many other viruses, such as coxsackieviruses, which have a protein coat. For effective centralized disinfection, there should be a residual concentration of free chlorine of ≥0.5 mg/L after at least 30 minutes of contact time at pH < 8.0 (12). A chlorine residual should be maintained throughout the distribution system.
In places where centralized water treatment and safe piped water supplies are not available, a number of household water treatment technologies are effective in removing or destroying viruses, including boiling or using high-performing ultrafiltration or nanomembrane filters, solar irradiation and, in non-turbid waters, UV irradiation and appropriately dosed free chlorine.1
Safely managing wastewater and faecal waste
There is no evidence to date that the COVID-19 virus has been transmitted via sewerage systems with or without wastewater treatment. Furthermore, there is no evidence that sewage or wastewater treatment workers contracted severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which is caused by another type of coronavirus that caused a large outbreak of acute respiratory illness in 2003.
As part of an integrated public health policy, wastewater carried in sewerage systems should be treated in well-designed and well-managed centralized wastewater treatment works. Each stage of treatment (as well as retention time and dilution) results in a further reduction of the potential risk.
A waste stabilization pond (that is, an oxidation pond or lagoon) is generally considered to be a practical and simple wastewater treatment technology that is particularly well suited to destroying pathogens, as relatively long retention times (that is, 20 days or longer) combined with sunlight, elevated pH levels, biological activity and other factors serve to accelerate pathogen destruction.
A final disinfection step may be considered if existing wastewater treatment plants are not optimized to remove viruses. Best practices for protecting the health of workers at sanitation treatment facilities should be followed. Workers should wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), which includes protective outerwear, gloves, boots, goggles or a face shield, and a mask; they should perform hand hygiene frequently; and they should avoid touching eyes, nose and mouth with unwashed hands.
Source:
Cranfield University
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