The recent expiration of the US-Saudi petrodollar agreement marks a significant development in international trade, indicating a potential decline in the United States’ role on the global stage. However, according to Hossein Askari, a former IMF Executive Board member and special adviser to the Saudi Arabian finance minister, this event is not anticipated to lead to an immediate and major shift in the global power dynamic.
“No, not for now unless it leads to a big shift in the currency denomination of international trade,” Askari said when asked if the lapse will lead to a shift in global power dynamics. “It is more a messaging that America’s international role in trade is beginning to decline.”
Saudi Arabia decided to let a 50-year petrodollar agreement with the United States expired on June 9. The agreement was created after the 1973 oil crisis and required that Saudi Arabia would price its oil exports exclusively in US dollars and invest its surplus oil revenues in US Treasury bonds. Saudi Arabia can now sell oil and other goods using other currencies like the renminbi, euro, and yen, among others.
Askari said the global oil market will not experience any major shake-ups following the end of the US-Saudi petrodollar agreement. “I don’t see Saudi Arabia running to denominate in another currency for financial reasons,” Askari said. “If they change the currency of denomination, it would be more politically motivated.”
Askari pointed out that although the dollar is more stable than other currencies, denominating oil in a basket of currencies such as the IMF’s Special Drawing Rights, would make the price of oil even more stable. Askari also said he does not expect the lapsed agreement to have much of an impact on the role of the dollar in the global financial system. “While the pact has expired, there is no rush to denominate in other currencies,” Askari said.
Askari also pointed out that the importance of oil is declining with the rise of liquefied natural gas, renewable energy, and electric vehicles replacing gasoline-powered cars. The shift towards renewable energy sources and the increasing prevalence of electric vehicles indicate a long-term transformation in global energy consumption patterns, reducing the strategic importance of oil.
Historically, the petrodollar system was a significant pillar of the US economic strategy. Following the 1973 oil crisis, the petrodollar agreement ensured that oil transactions globally would be conducted in US dollars, reinforcing the dollar’s dominance in international trade. This arrangement also provided the US with a steady demand for its currency, bolstering its economic stability.
The expiration of this agreement represents a symbolic shift in the economic landscape. However, the immediate effects on global trade dynamics may be limited. The US dollar continues to be the dominant currency in global finance, accounting for approximately 60% of global foreign exchange reserves. While the petrodollar agreement’s lapse could signal a gradual shift, the entrenched position of the US dollar in international trade will not be easily displaced.
Saudi Arabia’s decision to allow the petrodollar agreement to lapse could be seen as part of a broader strategy to diversify its economic relationships and reduce its dependence on any single currency. The kingdom’s Vision 2030 plan aims to diversify its economy beyond oil and attract investments in various sectors such as tourism, entertainment, and technology. This diversification strategy may lead to a more balanced approach in its foreign exchange and trade policies.
China, the world’s largest oil importer, has been advocating for oil contracts to be priced in yuan. The Shanghai International Energy Exchange (INE) launched yuan-denominated crude oil futures contracts in 2018, providing an alternative to the US dollar in the oil trade. This move aligns with China’s broader strategy to internationalize the yuan and reduce its reliance on the dollar. While the yuan’s role in the global oil market is growing, it still has a long way to go before it can challenge the dollar’s dominance.
The European Union, with its euro currency, also plays a significant role in the global oil market. The euro is the second most widely held reserve currency after the US dollar. However, the EU’s energy policies focus on reducing carbon emissions and increasing the share of renewable energy in its energy mix. This shift towards renewable energy sources may limit the impact of the petrodollar agreement’s lapse on the euro’s role in the oil trade.
The end of the petrodollar agreement could lead to increased volatility in oil prices, as oil-exporting countries may choose to denominate their exports in different currencies. This could result in fluctuating exchange rates and increased transaction costs for oil importers and exporters. However, the use of a basket of currencies, such as the IMF’s Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), could mitigate some of these effects by providing a more stable pricing mechanism for oil.
The geopolitical implications of the petrodollar agreement’s lapse are also significant. The US-Saudi relationship has been a cornerstone of American foreign policy in the Middle East. The petrodollar system not only reinforced economic ties but also provided the US with strategic leverage in the region. As Saudi Arabia explores new economic partnerships and diversifies its foreign policy, the dynamics of US-Saudi relations may evolve.
Russia, a major oil exporter, has also been seeking to reduce its reliance on the US dollar. In recent years, Russia has increased its use of the euro and the yuan in its trade with China and the European Union. The end of the petrodollar agreement aligns with Russia’s broader strategy to de-dollarize its economy and reduce its exposure to US economic sanctions.
The broader trend of de-dollarization is gaining momentum as countries seek to reduce their dependence on the US dollar and mitigate the risks associated with its dominance in global finance. This trend is driven by geopolitical considerations, economic diversification strategies, and the desire to reduce vulnerability to US sanctions.
The rise of digital currencies and blockchain technology could further accelerate the de-dollarization trend. Central banks around the world are exploring the development of central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) to enhance the efficiency and security of their financial systems. China’s digital yuan, which is already in pilot testing, could become a significant player in the global financial system and challenge the dominance of the US dollar.
The transition to a multipolar currency system, where multiple currencies play significant roles in global trade, will be a gradual process. The entrenched position of the US dollar, backed by the size and strength of the US economy, provides it with a significant advantage. However, the diversification of global trade currencies could lead to a more balanced and stable international financial system.
The shift towards renewable energy and the decline in the strategic importance of oil will also play a crucial role in shaping the future of global trade dynamics. The global energy transition, driven by technological advancements and environmental policies, will reduce the dependence on fossil fuels and increase the demand for renewable energy sources and technologies.
Electric vehicles (EVs) are at the forefront of this energy transition. The global EV market is growing rapidly, with major automakers investing heavily in the development and production of electric cars. Governments around the world are implementing policies and incentives to promote the adoption of EVs and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The increasing prevalence of EVs will reduce the demand for gasoline and oil, further diminishing the strategic importance of oil in the global economy.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is also playing an increasingly important role in the global energy market. LNG provides a cleaner alternative to coal and oil for power generation and industrial use. The growth of the LNG market is supported by the development of new technologies for liquefaction, transportation, and regasification. The expansion of LNG infrastructure and the increasing number of LNG export and import terminals are facilitating the global trade of natural gas.
Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, are becoming more competitive with fossil fuels in terms of cost and efficiency. The declining costs of renewable energy technologies, combined with supportive government policies and investments, are driving the rapid growth of renewable energy capacity worldwide. The integration of renewable energy into the global energy mix is essential for achieving climate goals and reducing the environmental impact of energy production and consumption.
The transition to a low-carbon economy will also create new economic opportunities and challenges. The development and deployment of clean energy technologies, energy storage solutions, and smart grid systems will drive innovation and create new markets and industries. However, the shift away from fossil fuels will also require significant investments in infrastructure, workforce retraining, and the development of new supply chains.
The End of the Petrodollar Agreement: Implications for Global Finance and U.S. Economy
The 50-year-old petrodollar agreement between the United States and Saudi Arabia, which played a pivotal role in the global financial system, has expired. This agreement, which pegged the U.S. dollar as the exclusive currency for oil transactions, fundamentally shaped international trade and economic policies since the 1970s. The expiration of this agreement marks a significant turning point with potential widespread ramifications for the global economy.
Historical Context and Genesis of the Petrodollar Agreement
The term “petrodollar” refers to the U.S. dollar’s role as the currency used for crude oil transactions worldwide. This arrangement originated in the 1970s, following the U.S.’s departure from the gold standard. In 1973, amid an oil crisis that saw skyrocketing prices and geopolitical tension, the United States and Saudi Arabia reached a landmark agreement. This deal ensured that Saudi Arabia would price its oil exclusively in U.S. dollars and invest its surplus oil revenues in U.S. Treasury bonds. In return, the U.S. provided military support and protection to the kingdom.
Benefits to the U.S. Economy and Financial Markets
The petrodollar agreement was mutually beneficial. For the United States, it secured a stable source of oil and created a captive market for its debt instruments, notably U.S. Treasury bonds. For Saudi Arabia, it guaranteed economic security and military protection, which was crucial in a volatile Middle Eastern geopolitical landscape.
U.S. Treasury Bonds and Capital Influx
The agreement had profound implications for the U.S. bond market. By mandating oil sales in dollars, the demand for the U.S. currency surged. Saudi Arabia, with its massive oil revenues, invested heavily in U.S. Treasury bonds. This influx of foreign capital supported low interest rates and a robust bond market, facilitating economic growth in the United States.
Economic Impact
Demand for U.S. Dollars
The requirement for oil transactions to be conducted in dollars created a consistent and substantial demand for the currency. Countries around the world needed dollars to purchase oil, leading to increased foreign exchange reserves held in U.S. dollars. This demand for dollars was not limited to oil transactions but extended to global trade and finance, reinforcing the dollar’s dominance.
Investment in U.S. Treasury Bonds
Saudi Arabia’s commitment to investing surplus oil revenues in U.S. Treasury bonds resulted in a significant capital influx. This steady investment provided liquidity to the U.S. bond market, helping to keep interest rates low. Lower interest rates, in turn, made borrowing cheaper for businesses and consumers, stimulating economic activity.
Data and Trends
From 1974 to 2020, Saudi Arabia and other oil-exporting nations accumulated substantial holdings of U.S. Treasury securities. According to the U.S. Department of the Treasury, foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities reached approximately $7 trillion by the end of 2020, with a significant portion attributed to oil-exporting countries.
Table : Major Foreign Holders of Treasury Securities Holdings at end of time period – Billions of dollars – Link: https://ticdata.treasury.gov
| Country | 2024-03 | 2024-02 | 2024-01 | 2023-12 | 2023-11 | 2023-10 | 2023-09 | 2023-08 | 2023-07 | 2023-06 | 2023-05 | 2023-04 | 2023-03 |
| Japan | 1187,8 | 1167,9 | 1151,5 | 1136,7 | 1127,5 | 1098,2 | 1086,4 | 1115,5 | 1111,8 | 1104,1 | 1096,1 | 1125,8 | 1086,6 |
| China, Mainland | 767,4 | 775,0 | 797,7 | 816,3 | 782,0 | 769,6 | 778,1 | 805,4 | 821,8 | 835,8 | 846,7 | 868,9 | 869,3 |
| United Kingdom | 728,1 | 701,3 | 691,9 | 679,2 | 716,9 | 693,7 | 669,6 | 694,0 | 658,7 | 675,5 | 657,8 | 676,5 | 705,8 |
| Luxembourg | 399,3 | 379,0 | 376,5 | 370,7 | 371,2 | 345,4 | 373,6 | 365,8 | 352,0 | 330,7 | 331,5 | 332,3 | 328,5 |
| Canada | 359,1 | 353,8 | 339,8 | 336,1 | 321,1 | 281,5 | 280,5 | 295,1 | 293,9 | 275,6 | 265,9 | 247,1 | 245,3 |
| Ireland | 317,8 | 316,9 | 319,0 | 331,5 | 314,8 | 299,4 | 294,9 | 294,4 | 271,5 | 277,8 | 245,1 | 244,9 | 253,0 |
| Belgium | 317,1 | 320,0 | 293,1 | 314,4 | 296,5 | 285,4 | 317,0 | 316,7 | 318,7 | 331,8 | 335,5 | 336,6 | 337,0 |
| Cayman Islands | 302,9 | 302,6 | 318,5 | 305,4 | 319,1 | 323,8 | 314,8 | 309,3 | 295,6 | 274,5 | 263,1 | 275,8 | 288,5 |
| France | 283,1 | 284,0 | 268,6 | 250,3 | 259,8 | 235,1 | 228,2 | 228,2 | 229,4 | 218,2 | 212,9 | 201,0 | 184,4 |
| Switzerland | 262,9 | 256,6 | 283,1 | 287,9 | 276,2 | 275,7 | 280,1 | 283,5 | 302,2 | 306,2 | 304,4 | 298,3 | 305,4 |
| Taiwan | 259,0 | 255,6 | 255,9 | 252,5 | 238,0 | 231,4 | 236,3 | 241,0 | 243,0 | 241,3 | 239,8 | 244,5 | 239,5 |
| India | 240,6 | 234,7 | 236,1 | 233,7 | 224,9 | 222,0 | 229,1 | 232,5 | 233,1 | 235,4 | 238,3 | 238,7 | 237,9 |
| Brazil | 227,1 | 225,6 | 226,8 | 230,3 | 224,9 | 219,4 | 223,0 | 223,2 | 224,7 | 227,5 | 230,0 | 229,8 | 224,4 |
| Singapore | 208,0 | 205,4 | 204,7 | 199,5 | 196,2 | 190,5 | 187,3 | 184,2 | 186,6 | 187,3 | 203,2 | 201,1 | 194,9 |
| Hong Kong | 202,2 | 212,5 | 228,5 | 234,2 | 211,1 | 199,1 | 197,0 | 202,6 | 205,9 | 198,9 | 216,1 | 222,2 | 223,1 |
| Norway | 148,7 | 138,6 | 144,9 | 126,1 | 113,6 | 121,2 | 121,6 | 126,3 | 127,5 | 126,4 | 122,0 | 122,8 | 119,1 |
| Saudi Arabia | 135,9 | 131,1 | 133,5 | 132,0 | 128,1 | 117,5 | 117,1 | 112,0 | 109,2 | 110,7 | 111,3 | 113,3 | 116,2 |
| Korea, South | 115,9 | 119,2 | 118,6 | 119,0 | 116,0 | 112,8 | 112,9 | 117,8 | 115,7 | 115,0 | 115,4 | 111,5 | 113,9 |
| Germany | 90,2 | 90,8 | 90,2 | 87,3 | 104,6 | 104,5 | 102,3 | 96,4 | 96,3 | 95,5 | 92,0 | 87,4 | 85,5 |
| Mexico | 88,9 | 80,3 | 75,9 | 77,9 | 75,6 | 74,3 | 73,5 | 73,3 | 74,2 | 70,9 | 72,5 | 68,5 | 65,2 |
| All Other | 1449,8 | 1421,1 | 1398,6 | 1425,6 | 1397,1 | 1370,5 | 1387,0 | 1390,8 | 1393,5 | 1388,3 | 1327,3 | 1332,9 | 1339,5 |
| Grand Total | 8091,8 | 7971,9 | 7953,6 | 7946,5 | 7815,1 | 7571,1 | 7610,6 | 7707,9 | 7665,3 | 7627,2 | 7527,0 | 7579,9 | 7563,1 |
| Of Which: Foreign Official | 3815,0 | 3765,7 | 3795,3 | 3786,9 | 3684,1 | 3640,4 | 3691,0 | 3738,1 | 3758,8 | 3769,2 | 3782,7 | 3789,7 | 3769,9 |
| Of Which: Foreign Official Treasury Bills | 267,0 | 266,3 | 250,3 | 250,0 | 246,0 | 234,8 | 234,5 | 237,8 | 236,6 | 220,4 | 234,4 | 231,3 | 252,3 |
| Of Which: Foreign Official T-Bonds & Notes | 3548,0 | 3499,4 | 3545,0 | 3537,0 | 3438,1 | 3405,6 | 3456,5 | 3500,4 | 3522,2 | 3548,8 | 3548,3 | 3558,4 | 3517,6 |
Projections
Looking ahead, the U.S. Treasury market is expected to remain attractive to foreign investors, despite potential geopolitical shifts. The stability and security of U.S. Treasury bonds make them a preferred investment choice. However, changes in global energy dynamics and diversification of foreign reserves may alter the scale of capital influx in the coming decades.
Supporting Low Interest Rates
The petrodollar system’s contribution to low interest rates cannot be overstated. The influx of foreign capital into U.S. Treasury bonds increased the demand for these securities, driving up their prices and lowering yields. This environment of low interest rates facilitated economic expansion by making credit more accessible.
Elevating the Dollar’s Status as the World’s Reserve Currency
Global Reserve Currency Status
The requirement that oil transactions be conducted in dollars significantly elevated the currency to the status of the world’s reserve currency. This status brought numerous advantages to the United States, including the ability to finance deficits at lower costs and exert influence over global monetary policy.
Advantages of Reserve Currency Status
Strengthening the Dollar
The global demand for dollars, driven by the necessity of oil purchases, contributed to the stability and strength of the U.S. economy. The dollar’s elevated status made imports cheaper for American consumers, contributing to lower inflation and higher standards of living.
Data and Trends
As of 2020, the U.S. dollar accounted for approximately 60% of global foreign exchange reserves, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). This dominance is largely attributed to the petrodollar system and the dollar’s use in international trade and finance.
Impact on U.S. Economy
The status of the dollar as the world’s reserve currency had a profound impact on the U.S. economy. It allowed the United States to maintain large current account deficits without facing the same pressures as other countries. This “exorbitant privilege” enabled the U.S. to borrow at lower costs and sustain higher levels of debt.
Data and Trends
According to the IMF, the U.S. current account deficit averaged around 2.5% of GDP from 1980 to 2020. This persistent deficit was financed by the continuous influx of foreign capital, facilitated by the dollar’s reserve currency status.
Projections
While the dollar’s dominance as the world’s reserve currency remains unchallenged in the near term, emerging trends in global finance and geopolitical shifts may influence its future role. The rise of alternative currencies and digital assets could impact the demand for the dollar in international transactions.
Detailed Analysis
Capital Influx and Bond Market Stability
The steady capital influx from oil-exporting countries into U.S. Treasury bonds played a crucial role in maintaining bond market stability. The reliability of these investments provided a solid foundation for the U.S. financial system, particularly during periods of economic uncertainty.
Data and Trends
The U.S. Department of the Treasury reports that foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities increased from approximately $1 trillion in 1995 to over $7 trillion in 2020. This growth highlights the significant role of foreign investments in the U.S. bond market.
Low Interest Rates and Economic Growth
Low interest rates, supported by the influx of foreign capital, contributed to economic growth by lowering the cost of borrowing. This environment encouraged investment in infrastructure, business expansion, and consumer spending, driving economic development.
Data and Trends
From 1974 to 2020, the average yield on 10-year U.S. Treasury bonds declined from around 7.5% to below 2%, reflecting the impact of sustained foreign investment. This decline in yields supported economic growth by reducing borrowing costs for the government, businesses, and consumers.
Dollar’s Reserve Currency Status and Global Trade
The dollar’s status as the world’s reserve currency facilitated international trade by providing a stable and widely accepted medium of exchange. This stability reduced transaction costs and exchange rate risks, benefiting global trade and economic integration.
Data and Trends
According to the Bank for International Settlements, the U.S. dollar was involved in approximately 88% of all foreign exchange transactions in 2020. This dominance underscores the critical role of the dollar in global trade and finance.
Future Projections and Challenges
Changing Energy Dynamics
The global energy landscape is undergoing significant changes, with a shift towards renewable energy sources and increased energy efficiency. These changes may impact the demand for oil and, consequently, the demand for dollars in oil transactions.
Data and Trends
The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that renewable energy will account for 50% of global electricity generation by 2050, up from 29% in 2020. This transition may reduce the reliance on oil and alter the dynamics of the petrodollar system.
Diversification of Foreign Reserves
Countries are increasingly diversifying their foreign reserves to reduce dependence on the dollar. This trend is driven by geopolitical considerations and the desire to mitigate risks associated with holding large amounts of dollar-denominated assets.
Data and Trends
The IMF reports that the share of non-dollar currencies in global foreign exchange reserves increased from 25% in 2000 to 40% in 2020. This diversification reflects a growing trend among countries to reduce their reliance on the dollar.
Rise of Digital Currencies
The advent of digital currencies, including central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) and cryptocurrencies, presents new challenges and opportunities for the global financial system. These digital assets could potentially impact the demand for the dollar and its role in international transactions.
Data and Trends
According to the Bank for International Settlements, over 60 central banks were exploring CBDCs as of 2021. The adoption of digital currencies could influence global trade and finance, potentially reducing the dominance of the dollar.
cessity for oil purchases, also contributed to the stability and strength of the U.S. economy.
The Shifting Energy Landscape and Challenges to the Petrodollar
The expiration of the petrodollar agreement on June 9, 2024, signals a potential shift in the global financial order. Several factors contribute to this development, most notably the changing dynamics in the energy market and the rise of alternative energy sources.
Rise of Alternative Energy Sources
The global shift towards renewable energy and natural gas has reduced reliance on oil. Technological advancements and policy shifts favoring sustainable energy have led to increased investments in solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources. This transition diminishes the dominance of oil in the global energy mix and, consequently, the petrodollar’s influence.
Emergence of New Oil-Producing Nations
New oil-producing nations, such as Brazil and Canada, have emerged, challenging the traditional dominance of Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia. This diversification of oil production reduces the influence of any single country or region on the global oil market, further weakening the petrodollar system.
Implications for the U.S. Dollar and Global Financial Markets
The expiration of the petrodollar agreement could have profound implications for the U.S. dollar and global financial markets. The potential shift away from oil transactions denominated in dollars could lead to a decline in global demand for the currency.
Potential Decline in Dollar Demand
If major oil-producing nations decide to price their oil in alternative currencies, the global demand for U.S. dollars could decrease. This reduction in demand could weaken the dollar’s value, leading to higher inflation and interest rates in the United States. A weaker dollar would also make imports more expensive, potentially impacting American consumers and businesses.
Impact on U.S. Treasury Bonds and Financial Markets
The decline in dollar demand could also affect the U.S. bond market. With less foreign investment in U.S. Treasury bonds, interest rates might rise to attract investors. Higher interest rates could increase the cost of borrowing for the U.S. government, businesses, and consumers, potentially slowing economic growth.
The Global Financial Order and Emerging Economies
The expiration of the petrodollar agreement reflects broader shifts in global power dynamics. Emerging economies, particularly in Asia and Latin America, are gaining influence in the global financial system.
Increasing Influence of Emerging Economies
Countries like China, India, and Brazil are becoming significant players in global finance and trade. These nations are seeking to reduce their dependence on the U.S. dollar by promoting their own currencies for international transactions. China’s Belt and Road Initiative and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank are examples of efforts to create alternative financial systems that do not rely on the dollar.
Potential for a Multipolar Currency System
The end of the petrodollar system could pave the way for a multipolar currency system, where multiple currencies, such as the euro, yuan, and yen, play significant roles in global trade. This shift could reduce the dominance of the U.S. dollar, leading to a more balanced and diversified global financial system.
Future Scenarios and Strategic Considerations
The expiration of the petrodollar agreement opens up several possible scenarios for the future of global finance and the U.S. economy.
Scenario 1: Gradual Transition to Alternative Currencies
In this scenario, the transition away from the dollar as the primary currency for oil transactions occurs gradually. Countries may start pricing oil in a mix of currencies, leading to a diversified currency system. The U.S. dollar would still play a significant role, but its dominance would be diminished.
Scenario 2: Rapid Shift to a Multipolar Currency System
A more rapid transition to a multipolar currency system could occur if major oil producers quickly adopt alternative currencies. This scenario could lead to a sharp decline in the dollar’s value and significant volatility in global financial markets. The U.S. would need to adapt quickly to maintain economic stability.
Scenario 3: Resilience of the Dollar and New Agreements
The U.S. could negotiate new agreements with oil-producing nations to maintain the dollar’s role in oil transactions. These agreements might involve economic, military, or political concessions. If successful, this strategy could prolong the dollar’s dominance and stabilize global financial markets.
The expiration of the petrodollar agreement marks a significant shift in global finance. While the full implications of this shift remain uncertain, it is clear that the global financial order is entering a new era. The rise of alternative energy sources, the emergence of new oil-producing nations, and the increasing influence of emerging economies are all contributing to this transformation.
Investors and policymakers must closely monitor these developments and prepare for potential changes in the global financial landscape. The U.S. dollar’s dominance is no longer guaranteed, and the future may see a more balanced and diversified global currency system. Understanding these dynamics and strategically responding to them will be crucial for maintaining economic stability and growth in the coming years.
In conclusion, while the lapse of the US-Saudi petrodollar agreement is a significant development, its immediate impact on global trade dynamics and the role of the US dollar in the international financial system may be limited. The broader trends of de-dollarization, the rise of renewable energy, and the transition to a multipolar currency system will shape the future of global trade and finance. The shift towards a more diversified and balanced international financial system, supported by technological advancements and environmental policies, will contribute to greater stability and resilience in the global economy.
